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&JI

LIBRARY

OF THK

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

OF"

Mrs. SARAH P. WALSWOR^H.

Received October, 1894. ^

Accessions No.jfif *J L£Q Class No.

SCIENCES

illiistraipf! i)\T .;ij;v\-(,r(^ leftegaiti ; brtg^o

PHILADELPHIA.

Pi-iiiter

AMERICAN EDITION

OF THE

BRITISH ENCYCLOPEDIA,

DICTIONARY

ARTS AND SCIENCES,

COMPRISING

AN ACCURATE AND POPULAR VIEW

OF THE PRESENT

IMPROVED STATE "OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE.

BY WILLIAM NICHOLSON,

Author and Proprietor of the Philosophical Journal, and various other Chemical, Philosophical, and
Mathematical Works.

ILLUSTRATED WITH

UPWARDS OF 180 ELEGANT ENGRAVINGS.
VOL. HI.

PHILADELPHIA :

PUBLISHED BY MITCHELL, AMES, AND WHITE.

ALSO,

BY INGRAM AND LLOYD, NASHVILLE.

William Brown, Printer.

1819.

THE

BRITISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

BUG

BUBROMA, in botany, a genus of the
Polyadelphia Decandria class and
order. Nat. order Columniferae. Malva-
ceae, Jussieu. Essential character : calyx
three-leaved ; petals five, arched, semi-
bifid ; anthers on each filament three ;
stigma simple; capsule muricate, ending
in a five-rayed star punched with holes,
five-celled, valveless, not opening. There
is but one species, viz. B.guazuma, elm-
leaved bubroma or theobroma, or bastard
cedar. This tree rises to the height of
forty or fifty feet in the West Indies, hav-
ing1 a trunk as large as the size of a man's
body, covered with a dark brown bark,
.sending out many branches towards the
top, \vbich extend wide every way ; leaves
oblong, heart-shaped, alternate, nearly
four inches long, and two broad near the
base, ending in acute points; the branches
have a nap .scattered over them ; they
have no buds ; the flowers are in co-
rymbs. In Jamaica it is known by the
nurae of bastard cedar, and is peculiar to
the low lands there, forming an agreeable
shade for the cattle, and supplying them
with food in dry weather, when all the
herbage is burned up or exhausted. The
wood is light and so easily wrought, that
it is generally used by coachmakers in
all the side pieces ; it is also cut into
staves for casks

BUCCANEERS, those who dry and
smoke flesh or fish after the manner of
the Americans. This name is particularly
given to the French inhabitants of the
island of St. Domingo, whose whole em-
ployment is to hrnt bulls or wild boars, in
order to sell the hides of the former and
the flesh of the latter.

BUC

The buccaneers are of two sorts ; the
buccaneers ox-hunters, or rather hunters
of bulls and cows; and the buccaneers
boar hunters, who are simply called hun-
ters : though it seems that such a name be
less proper to them than to the former ;
since the latter smoke and dry the flesh
of wild boars, which is properly called
buccaneering, whereas the former pre-
pare only the hides, which is done with-
out buccaneering.

Buccaneering is a term taken from Buc-
can, the place where they smoke their
flesh or fish, after the manner of the sa-
vages, on a grate or hurdle made of Bra-
sil wood, placed in the smoke a consider-
able distance from the fire ; this place is
a hut of about twenty-five or thirty feet
in circumference, all surrounded and co-
vered with palmetto leaves.

BUCCINATOR, in anatomy; a muscle
on each side of the face, common to the
lips and cheeks. See ANATOMY.

BUCCINUM, in natural history, a ge-
nus of the Vermes Testacea. Animal a
limax ; shell univalve, spiral, gibbous ;
aperture ovate, terminating in a short ca-
nal leaning to the right, with a retuse
beak or projection ; pillar-lip, expanded.
There are between two and three hun-
dred species, separated into eight divi-
sions; viz. A. inflated, rounded, thin, sub-
diaphonous, and brittle. B. with a short
exserted beak ; lip unarmed outwardly.
C.lip prickly outwardly on the hind part;
in other respects resembling division B.
D. pillar-lip, dilated and thickene.-I E.
pillar-lip appearing as if worn flat p.
smooth, am' not among the former divi-
sions. G. angular, and not included among

BUC

J3UC

the former divisions. H. tapering, subu-
late, smooth.

BUCCO, the barbet, in natural history,
a genus of birds of the order Picae. Ge-
neric character ; bill sharp-edged, com-
pressed on the sides, notched on each
side near the apex, bent inwards, with a
long slit beneath the eyes ; nostrils cover-
ed with incumbent feathers; feet formed
for climbing. These birds live chiefly in
warm climates, and are very stupid ; bill
strong, straightish, almost covered with
bristles ; tail feathers usually ten, weak.
There are nineteen species, of which we
shall notice only B.jamatia, or spotted-
bellied barbet. This bird is found in Bra-
zil and Cayenne, is clumsy in its shape,
and pensive and solitary in its manners.
It is so lethargic in its disposition, that it
will suffer itself to be shot at several
times before it attempts to escape. Its
food consists of insects, and particularly
large beetles, and the feathers of its tail
are much worn by friction, so as to indi-
cate the probability of the tail being em-
ployed, agreeably to the known habit of
woodpeckers, in propping or supporting
the body.

BUCEROS, the hombill, in natural his-
tory, a genus of birds of the order Picse.
Generic character ; their bill is convex,
curved, sharp-edged, large, outwardly
serrate, with a horny protuberance near
the base of the upper mandible ; the nos-
trils are behind the base of the bill ; the
tongue is sharp -pointed, and short ; the
feet gressorial. There are sixteen spe-
cies enumerated by Gmelin, though La-
tham reckons only four ; of these the most
curious is the B. abyssinicus, or Abyssi-
nian hornbill. This is found in the coun-
try from which it takes its name, princi-
pally among fields of jafl£ and nourishes
itself by the green beetles which abound
in them. Its young are numerous, some-
times amounting even to eighteen.
Though capable of flying far, it chiefly
runs. It builds its nest in large thick
trees, near churches or other elevated
buildings : this nest resembles a magpie's
in being covered, but is several times
larger than an eagle's ; it is seldom much
elevated above the ground, but almost al-
ways firm on the trunk, and the entrance
to it is always from the east. This bird
is, in some places, called the bird of
destiny.

BUCID A, in botany, a genus of the Do-
decandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Holoracese. Elxagni,
Jussieu. Essential character ; calyx five-
toothed, superior; corolla none; berry
one-seeded. There is but one species ;

TIZ. B. buceras, olive bark tree, is a tree
growing from twenty to thirty feet in
height ; the branches and twigs are di-
varicate or flexuose, roundish, smooth,
and even flowers, in racemes from the
crowded leaves, simple, spreading, ma-
ny-flowered; calyx hoary without, to-
mentose within ; filaments twice as long
as the calyx ; anthers roundish, yellow ;
germ flatted, with ten streaks at the base.
It is a native of the West Indies, flower-
ing in spring.

BUCHNERA, in botany, so named in
honour of A. C. Buchner/a genus of the
Didynamia Angiospermia class and order.
Natural order of Personatae Pedicu-
lares, Juss. Essential character : calyx,
obscurely five-toothed ; corolla border
five-cleft, equal ; lobes cordate, capsule
two-celled. There are eleven species,
of which B. Americana, North American
buchnera, has the stem scarcely branch-
ing ; flowers in a spike remote from each
other ; two of the stamens in the jaws of
the corolla, and two in the middle of the
tube. The herb grows black in drying.
It is a native of Virginia and Canada. B.
cernua, drooping buchnera, is a shrub
half a foot in height, branching regularly;
a little jointed from the scars left by the
leaves; purplish ; flowers sessile, erect,
with a linear, sharp bracte, shorter than
the calyx, and two shorter lateral bristles;
calyx tubular, oblong^ semiquinquefid,
equal; corolla white, with a filiform tube,
twice as long as the calyx, and bent back ;
border flat, five-parted ; segments subo-
vate ; anthers within the jaws, two low-
er than the other two ; stigma inclosed,
reflex, thickish. Native of the Cape of
Good Hope.

BUCK, in natural history, a male horn-
ed beast, whose female is denominated a
doe. See CERVUS.

BUCKET, a small portable vessel to
hold water, often made of leather, for its
lightness and easy use in cases of fire. It
is also the vessel letdown into a well, or
the sides of ships, to fetch up water.

BUCKING, the first operation in the
whitening of linen-yarn or cloth : it con-
sists in pouring hot water upon a tubful
of yarn, intermingled with several strata
of fine ashes of the ash tree. See BLEACH-
ING.

BUCKLER, a piece of defensive ar-
mour used by the ancients. It was worn
on the left arm, and composed of wickers
woven together, or wood of the lightest
sort, but most commonly of hides, fortifi-
ed with plates of brass or other metal.
The figure was sometimes round, some-
times oval, and sometimes almost square.

BUD

Most of the bucklers were curiously
adorned with all sorts of figures of birds
and beasts, as eagles, lions : nor of these
only, but of the gods, of the celestial bo-
dies, and all the works of nature ; which
custom was derived from the heroic
times, and from them communicated to
the Grecians, Romans, and Barbarians.

BUCKLEHS, votive. Those consecrated
to the gods, and hung up in their tem-
ples, either in commemoration of some
hero, or as a thanksgiving for a victory
obtained over an enemy; whose buck-
lers, taken in war, were offered as a tro-
phy.

BUCKRAM, in commerce, a sort of
coarse cloth, made of hemp, gummed, ca-
lendered, and dyed several colours. It
is put into those places of the lining of a
garment, which one would have stiff and
to keep their forms. It is also used in
the bodies of women's gowns ; and it
often serves to make wrappers to cover
cloths, serges, and such other merchan-
dises, in order to preserve them and keep
them from the dust, and their colours
from fading.

BUCOLIC, in ancient poetry, a kind of
poem relating to shepherds and country
affairs, which, according to the most ge-
nerally received opinion, took its rise in
Sicily. Bucolics, says Vossius, have some
conformity with comedy. Like it, they
are pictures and imitations of ordinary
life; with this difference, however, that
comedy represents the manners of the
inhabitants of cities ; and bucolics, the
occnpations of country people. Some-
times, continues he, this last poem is in
form of a monologue, and sometimes of a
dialogue. Sometimes there is action in
it, and sometimes only narration ; and
sometimes it is composed both of action
and narration. The hexameter verse is
the most proper for bucolics in the Greek
and Latin tongues. Moschus, Bion, The-
ocritus, and Virgil, are the most renown-
ed of the ancient bucolic poets.

BUDDLEA, in botany, so named in
honour of Adam Buddie, a genus of the
Tetrandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Personatae. Scrophu-
larix, Jussieu. Essential character : ca-
lyx four cleft ; corol four cleft ; stamens
from the divisions ; capsules two furrow-
ed, two-celled, many-seeded. There are
eight species, of which B.americana, long
spiked buddlea, is a shrub the height of
a man ; leaves ovate-lanceolate ; flowers
in long slender spikes, axillary, and ter-
minating; composed of little, opposite,
many-flowered, crowded racemes ; co-
rolla coriaceous, scarcely longer than

the calyx. B. occidentalis ; spear-leaved
buddlea ; this plant is much taller than
the first, and divides into a greater num-
ber of slender branches, which are cover-
ed with a russet hairy bark, with long
spear-shaped leaves, ending in sharp
points; these grow opposite at every
joint ; at the end of the branches are pro-
duced spikes of white flowers, growing
in whorls round the stalks. It grows in
sheltered places in the West Indies, be-
ing too tender to resist the force of strong
winds.

BUDDING, in gardening, is a method
of propagation, practised for various sorts
of trees, but particularly those of the
fruit kinds. It is the only method which
can be had recourse to,with certainty, for
continuing and multiplying the approved
varieties of many sorts of fruit and other
trees ; as, although their seeds readily
grow, and become trees, not one out of a
hundred, so raised, produces any thing
like the original ; and but very few that
are good. But trees or stocks raised in
this manner, or being budded with the
proper sorts, the buds produce invariably
the same kind of tree, fruit, flower, &c.
continuing unalterably the same after-
wards.

The stocks for this use are commonly
raised from seed, as the kernels or stones
of these different sorts of fruit, &c. sown
in autumn or spring in beds, in the nur-
sery, an inch or two deep, which, when
a year or two old, should be transplanted
into nursery rows, two feet asunder, and
fifteen or eighteen inches distant in the
rows, to stand for budding upon, keeping
them to one stem, and suffering their
tops to run up entire ; when of two or
three years growth, or about the size of
the little finger at bottom, or a little
more, they are of a due size for budding
upon.

Stocks raised from suckers arising-from
the roots of the trees of these different
sorts, layers, and cuttings of them, are
also made use of, but they are not so good
for the purpose. Budding may likewise
be performed occasionally upon trees
that already bear fruit, when intended to
change the sorts, or have different sorts
on the same tree, or to renew any par-
ticular branch of a tree; the operation
being performed on the young shoots of
the year, or of one or two year's growth
only. The most proper height to bud
stocks varies according to the intention,
but from about three or four inches to six
feet or more from the ground is prac-
tised. To have dwarf trees for walls, and
espaliers, &c. they must be budded from

BUD

BUI

within, about three to six inches from
the bottom, that they may first furnish
branches near the ground : for half stand-
ards, at the height of three or four feet ;
and for full standards, at from about five
to six or seven feet high ; the stocks be-
ing trained accordingly. The necessary
implements and materials for this pur-
pose are, a small budding knife for pre-
paring the stocks and buds for insertion,
having a flat thin haft to open the bark of
the stocks in order to admit the buds ;
and • quantity of new bass strings well
moistened, to tie them with. In perform-
ing the operation of budding, the head
of the stock is not to be cut off, as in
grafting, but the bud inserted into the
side, the head remaining entire till the
spring afterwards, and then cut off. A
smooth part on the side of the stocks at
the proper height, rather on the north
side away from the sun, should be chosen;
and then with the knife an horizontal cut
made across the rind, and from the mid-
dle of that cut a slit downwards about two
inches in length, in the form of the letter
T, being careful lest the stalk be wound-
ed. Then, having cut off the leaf from
the bud, leaving the foot-stalk remaining,
make a cross-cut about half an inch be-
low the eye, and with the knife slit off the
bud with part of the wood to it, some-
what in the form of an escutcheon, pull-
ing off that part of the wood which was
taken with the bud, being1 careful that
the eye of the bud be left with it, as
all those buds which lose their eyes
in stripping should be thrown away as
good for nothing : then having gently
raised the bark of the stock, where the
cross incision was made with the flat haft
of the knife clear to the wood, thrust the
bud in, placing it smoothly between the
rind *na the wood of the stock, cutting
off any part of the rind, belonging to the
bud, which may be too long for the slit ;
and after having exactly fitted the bud to
the stock, tie them closely round with
bass strings, beginning at the under part
of the slit and proceed to the top, taking
care not to bind round the eye of the
bud, which should be left open and at
liberty. When the buds have been in-
serted about three weeks or a month,
examine which of them have taken ;
those which appear shrivelled and black
being dead, but such as remain fresh and
plump are joined; and at this time loosen
the bandage, which, if not done in time,
is apt to pinch the stock, and greatly in-
jure, if not destroy, the bud. The March
following, cut off the stock about three
inches above the bud, sloping it, that the

wet may pass off, and not enter into the
stock. To the part of the stock which is
left, some fasten the shoot which pro-
ceeds from the bud, to prevent the dan-
ger of its being blown out, but tiiis must
continue no longer than one year ; after
which it must be cut off close above the
bud. that the stock may be covered by it.

BUFF, in commerce, a sort of leather
prepared from the skin of the buffalo,
which, dressed with oil, after the manner
of shammy, makes what vre call buft-skin.
This makes a very considerable article in
the French, English, and Dutch com-
merce at Constantinople, Smyrna; and all
along the coast of Africa. The skins of
elks, oxen, and other like anmials, when
prepared after the same manner as that
of the buffalo, are likewise called buffs.

BUFFALO, in zoology, an animal of
the ox kind, with very large, crooked,
and resupinated horns. See Bos.

BUFFONIA, in botany, so named in
honour of the Count de Buffon, a genus
of the Tetrandria Dygyma class and order.
Natural order of Caryophillei. Essential
character : calyx four- leaved ; corol four
petalled ; capsules one-celled, two seed-
ed. There is but one species, viz. B. te-
nuifolia ; small buffonia, or bastard chick-
weed, has an annual root, the stem half a
foot in height, upright,commonly branch-
ed at the base; leaves in pairs at each
joint, resembling grass leaves, but when
the plant is in flower, they are dry and
shrivelled ; stamens two, sometimes four;
filaments very slender, shorter than the
corolla, fastened to the receptacle ; an-
thers saffron coloured : the capsule splits
at top into two hearts; seeds blackish.
It is a native of England, France, Italy,
and Spain. It flowers in May and June.

BUFO, toad. See RAKA.

BUG. See CIMKX.

The hcnrsebug, or cimexlectuarius, so
extremely troublesome about beds, is of
a roundish figure, and of a dark cinna-
mon colour. One of the best methods
for extirpating these insects from bed-
steads is, by thoroughly washing all the
parts where they are likely to lodge with
a solution of muriated mercury, or, as it
is called in the shops, corrosive sublimate.
Great caution should be had in the use of
this mixture, as it is one of the most
deadly poisons known.

BUGINVILLJEA, in botany, a genus
of the Octandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Corolla inferior, tubular, four tooth-
ed ; stamina inserted on the receptacle ;
fruit one-seeded. One species, B. specta-
bilis, found at the Brazils.

BUILDING, a fabric erected by art,

BUILDING.

either for devotion, magnificence, orcon-
veniency.

BUILDING is also used for constructing
and raising an edifice; in which sense
it comprehends as well the expenses, as
the invention and execution of the design.
There are three things chiefly to be con-
sidered in the art of building, viz. con-
venience, firmness, and delight. To ac-
complish which ends, Sir H. Wotton con-
siders the subject under these two heads,
tin situation, and the work. A to the si-
tuation, either thai of ihe whole is to be
considered, or that of its parts. In the
first, regard must be had to the quality,
temperature, and salubrity of the air , to
the quality of the soil ; to the conveniency
of water, fuel, carriage, Sec. and to the
agreeableness of the prospect. As to the
situation of the parts, the chief rooms,
studies, and libraries, should lie towards
the east ; those offices which require heat,
as kitchens, brew-houses, bake-houses,
and distillatories, to wards the south; those
which require a cool fresh air, as cellars,
pantries, granaries, to the north ; as also
galleries for paintings, museums, &c.
which require a steady light. The ancient
Greeks and Romans generally situated the
fronts of their houses towards the south ;
but the modern Italians vary much from
this rule. And indeed, as to this matter,
regard must still be had to the country,
each being obliged to provide against its
own inconveniences.

The situation being fixed on, the next
thing to be considered is the work itself,
under which come first the principal parts,
and next the accessaries or ornaments.
To the principals belong the materials,
and the form or disposition.

Modern buildings are, in general, much
more commodious and beautiful than
those of former times. Compactness and
uniformity are now so much attended to,
that a house built after the new way will
afford, on the same ground, double the
conveniences which could be had in an
old one.

In this article we shall give an account
of the principal parts of a building, be-
ginning with the foundation.

Foundation, is the trench or trenches
excavated out of the ground, in order to
rest the edifice firmly on its base. The
trenches should be sunk till they come to
an uniform firm texture of ground, or to
the solid rock ; but when there is no pros-
pect of a firm and uniform bed of gravel,
clay, or rock, then recourse must be had
to an artificial foundation.

If the ground is tolerably firm, lay

transverse pieces of oak, called sleepers,
about two feet ci&fan*: from eacii other,
firmly on the ground ; having their upper
surface level with the bottom of the
trench, and their length equal to its
breadth, or about two feet longer than the
width of the intended masonry at the
bottom of the wall : over these lay pianks
in the length of the foundation to the
breadth of the masonry, where it is to be
in contact with the ground, and pin or
spike them down.

But if the ground be very bad, provide
piles of wood, of such length that they
may be able to reach the sound ground,
and of such thickness as to be about a
twelfth part of their length,and drive these
either close to each other, or with inter-
stices, such as the soil may require, and
fix Blanks to their heads or upper ends.

If the ground be generally sound, turn
arches over the loose places. When nar-
row piers are to stand upon the founda-
tion, inverted arches might be turned be-
low the. apertures, in order to present a
greater surface of resistance to the
ground. When the outer walls of a build-
ing are piled, the inner ones must b<* so
likewise, that the whole may stand uni-
formly firm, without the possibility of one
wail sinking from another.

If narrow piers are to support a great
structure, planks should be placed below,
in order to prevent the piers from pene-
trating the ground. If a building is
founded upon an inclined plane, the
trenches should be made like steps, hav-
ing their upper surfaces level, and the
risings perpendicular.

Forced earth is unfit for a foundation
for a considerable time.

Foundation is also the substructure or
bottom of a wall, consisting of one or
more regular steps on each side of the
wall, below the level of the under side of
the floor of the lowest story of a house,
in order to prevent it from sinking into the
ground, by opposing a greater surface of
resistance to it, and for preventing the
wall from being overturned by a tempest
or storm : each course of steps is called a
footing.

The breadth of the substructure should
be proportioned to the weight of the su-
perstructure, and to the softness of the
ground on which it rests ; if the texture
of the ground is supposed to be constant,
and the materials of the same specific
gravity, the breadth of the foundation
will be as the area of the vertical section
passing through the line on which the
breadth is measured ; thus, for example.

BUILDING.

suppose a wall 40 feel high, 2 feet thick ;
to have a sufficient foundation at 3 feet in
breadth, what, should be the breadth of
a foundation of a wall 60 feet high, 2$ feet
thick : by proportion it will be 40x2
: 3 :: 60 x2£ : the ans. = Sfeet. This

calculation will give the breadth of the
foundation of the required wall equal to
the breadth of the insisting wall itself;
when the height of the required wall is
equal to the ratio, which is the first term
40X2 = 80, divided by the second term

3, that is^J: = 26|. Thus a wall of 26|

feet would have the breadth of its foun-
dation equal to its thickness above the
foundation, and less than 26| feet would
have a thinner foundation than even the
superstructure. But though the calcula-
tion in this case gives the foundation less
breadth than the thickness of its super-
structure, it must be considered, that it
only calculates the true breadth of sur-
face that should be opposed to the
ground, in order to prevent the wall from
penetration by its weight : though the
rule gives allthe breadth that is necessary,
on account of the weight of the insisting
wall, yet the breadth of the substructure
should always be greater than that of
the superstructure ; as it will stand more
firmly on its base when affected by later-
al pressure, and be less liable to rock by
the blowing of heavy winds. The least
breadth that is commonly given to the
substructure of stone walls is one foot
thicker than the superstructure. In
damp foundations, the superstructure
should always be separated from the sub-
structure by lead, tarred paper, or other
means.

Stone Arch. Stone arch is a number of
stones so arranged,that, in consequence of
theirpressure upon one another and upon
their supports, they may be suspended
over a hollow space ; every interior stone
being such, that, if a plummet be depend-
ed by a line from any point in that stone,
the line will fall within the hollow space.

Stone arches are generally hollow be-
low, and concave towards that hollow.
The interior stones ought to be truncated
wedges, and their faces, which form the
intrados, of less dimensions than the up-
per opposite surfaces which form the ex-
trados : so that when any stone endea-
vours to descend through the aperture
which surrounds it, it will be prevented
by the dimensions of the lower part of the
aperture being less than those of the top
of the stone which has to fall through it.

Wedge-like stones forming an arch are
arch stones.

The joints between the arch stones are
called sommerings.

The support or supports of an arch are
called the reins of that arch.

When the support or supports of an
arch are stone walls, the upper course or
courses, on which the beds of the ex-
treme arch stones rest, are called the
imposts.

Spring course, or chaptrels of the arch,
are called the butments or abutments, or
spring beds, or skew backs of the arch.

When an arch is either recessed in any
piece of masonry, or forms the head of
an aperture through that piece of mason-
ry, the arch stones, which are common to
the intrados and to the face of the mason-
ry, are called voussoirs, and the middle
voussoir is called the key-stone.

Stone arches are used for a variety of
purposes, in supporting different parts of
a building, over apertures, when the
apertures are too wide for lintelling, and
over a wooden or stone lintel, to assist in
supporting the superincumbent build-
ing.

Arches are also used to prop the sides
of a building-, and in soft foundations in-
verted arches are used, between narrow
piers, to prevent the pier from penetrat-
ing, by opposing a greater surface of re-
sistance to the ground.

Floors and roofs are frequently sup-
ported with arches, in order to render
the building more secure from fire.

Arches employed for several of these
purposes have been demoninated as fol-
lows : those over wooden lintels have
been called occult discharging arches, or
arches of discharge ; those used to prop
the sides of a building are called arch
boutants, or flying buttresses ; and those
over apertures, the intrados of which are
horizontal planes, have been absurdly
called straight arches ; it is only for the
property of its radiating joints this last is
called an arch.

Because the courses in every kind of
masonry ought to be horizontal, or the
nearest position to it that the nature of
the arch will admit of, in stone arching,
it follows, that when the intrados is a ro-
tative figure, with a vertical axis, the
coursing joints will be conic surfaces, and
their intersections upon the intrados ho-
rizontal circles, and the transverse joints
will be planes tending to the axis : when
the axis is horizontal, the coursing joints
will be planes tending to the axis, and
the transverse joints will be either ver-

BUILDING.

tical circular rings, or conic surfaces,
having- the same common axis with the
intrados.

Stone Walls. Stone walls are those
built of stone, with or without cement in
the joints; the bedding joints have most
commonly a horizontal position in the
face of the work ; and this ought always
to be the case, when the top of a wall ter-
minates in a horizontal plane or line. In
bridge building, and in the masonry of
fence walls, upon inclined surfaces, the
bedding joints on the face sometimes fol-
low the direction of the top or terminat-
ing surface.

The footings of stone walls ought to be
constructed of large stones, which, if not
naturally near the square from the quar-
ry, should be reduced by hammer dress-
ing to that form, and to an .equal thick-
ness in the same course; for, it the beds
of the stones of the foundation are suffer-
ed to taper, the superstructure will be
apt to give way, by resting upon mere
angles or points ; or upon inclined sur-
faces the footings ought to be well bed-
ded upon each other with mortar, and all
the upright joints of an upper footing
should break joint ; that is, they should
fall upon the solid of the stones below,
and not upon the joint.

The following are methods practised in
laying the footings of a stone foundation :
when walls are thin, and stones can be
got conveniently, that their length may
reach across each footing from one side
of the wall to the other, the setting of
each course with whole stones in the
thickness of the wall should be preferred.
But when the walls are thicker, and bond
stones in part can only be conveniently
procured, then every other succeeding
stone in the course may be a whole stone
in the thickness of the wall ; and every
other interval may consist of two stones
in the breadth of the footing; this is plac-
ing the header and stretcher alternately,
like Flemish bond in nine-inch brickwork.
But when bond stones cannot be had con-
veniently, every alternate stone should be
In length two-thirds of the breadth of the
footing upon the same side of the wall ;
then upon the other side of the wall a
stone of one-third of the breadth of the
footing should be placed opposite to one
of two-thirds ; and one of two-thirds op-
posite to one of one third ; so that the
stones may be placed in the same man-
ner as those of the other side.

In broad foundations, where stones can-
not be procured for a length equal to two-

VOL. UI.

thirds of the foundation, then build them
alternately, with the joints on the upper
bed of each footing, so that the joint of
every two stones may fall as nearly as pos-
sible in the middle of the length of the
one, or each adjoining stone ; observing
to dispose the stones alike on each side
of every footing. A wall, the superstruc-
ture of which is built of unhewn stone
laid in mortar, is called a ruble wall. They
are of two kinds, coursed and uncoursed.
The most common kind of ruble is the
uncoursed, of which the greater part of
the stones is crude, as they came out of
the quarry, and the rest hammer dressed.
This kind of walling is very inconvenient
for the building of bond timbers ; but if
they are to be preferred to plugging, the
backing must be levelled in every height
in which the bond timbers are disposed.
The best kind of ruble is the coursed; the
courses are all of accidental thicknesses,
adjusted by a sizing rule, as the slating
of a roof; the stones are either hammer
dressed or axed. This kind of work is
favourable for the disposition of bond tim-
bers : but as all buildings, constructed
either in whole or in part of timber, are
liable to be burnt, strong well built walls
should never be bound with timber, but
should rather be plugged ; for if such ac-
cident take place, the walls will be less
liable to warp.

Walls faced with squared stones, hewn
or rubbed, and backed with ruble stone
or brick, are called ashler. The medium
size of each ashler measures horizontally
in the face of the wall about 28 or 30
inches, in the altitude one foot, and in the
thickness 8 or 9 inches. The best figures
of stones for an ashler facing are formed
like truncated wedges; that is to say, they
are thinner at one end than at the other
in the thickness of the wall, so that when
the stones of one course, or a part of a
course, are shaped in this manner, and
alike situated to each other, 'the back of
the course will form an indention like the
teeth of a joiner's saw, but more shallow,
in proportion to the length of a tooth ; the
next course has its indentations formed
the same way, and the stones so selected,
that the upright joints break upon the
solid of the stones below.

By these means, the facing and backing
are toothed together, and unquestionably
stronger than if the back of each ashler
had been parallel to the front surface of
the wall ; as the stones are mostly raised
in quarries of various thicknesses, in an
ashler facing, it would greatly contribute

BUILDING.

suppose a wall 40 feet high, 2 feet thick ;
to have a sufficient foundation at 3 feet in
breadth, what should be the breadth of
a foundation of a wall 60 feet high, 2$ feet
thick : by proportion it will be 40x2
: 3 :: 60x2£ : the ans. = 5* feet. This
calculation will give the breadth of the
foundation of the required wall equal to
the breadth of the insisting wall itself;
when the height of the required wall is
equal to the ratio, which is the first term
40X2 = 80, divided by the second term

3, that isHr = 26 1 . Thus a wall of 26|

Stone Arch. Stone arch is a number of
stones so arranged,that, in consequence of
theirpressure upon one another and upon
their supports, they may be suspended
over a hollow space : every interior stone
being such, that, if a plummet be depend-
ed by a line from any point in that stone,
the line will fall within the hollow space.

Wedge-like stones forming an arch are
arch stones.

The joints between the arch stones are
called sommerings.

The support or supports of an arch are
called the reins of that arch.

When the support or supports of an
arch are stone walls, the upper course or
courses, on which the beds of the ex-
treme arch stones rest, are called the
imposts.

Spring course, or chaptrels of the arch,
are called the butments or abutments, or
spring beds, or skew backs of the arch.

Arches are also used to prop the sides
of a building1, and in soft foundations in-
verted arches are used, between narrow
piers, to prevent the pier from penetrat-
ing, by opposing a greater surface of re-
sistance to the ground.

Floors and roofs are frequently sup-
ported with arches, in order to render
the building more secure from fire.

BUILDING.

tical circular rings, or conic surfaces,
having the same common axis with the
intrados.

Stone Walls. Sto»e walls are those
built of stone, with or without cement in
the joints; the bedding joints have most
commonly a horizontal position in the
face of the work ; and this ought always
to be the case, when the top of a wall ter-
minates in a horizontal plane or line. In
bridge building, and in the masonry of
fence walls, upon inclined surfaces, the
bedding joints on the face sometimes fol-
low the direction of the top or terminat-
ing surface.

The footings of stone walls ought to be
constructed of large stones, which, if not
naturally near the square from the quar-
ry, should be reduced by hammer dress-
ing to that form, and to an . equal thick-
ness in the same course ; for, if the beds
of the stones of the foundation are suffer-
ed to taper, the superstructure will be
apt to give way, by resting upon mere
angles or points ; or upon inclined sur-
faces the footings ought to be well bed-
ded upon each other with mortar, and all
the upright joints of an upper footing
should break joint ; that is, they should
fall upon the solid of the stones below,
and not upon tb« joint.

The following are methods practised in
laying the footings of a stone foundation :
when walls are thin, and stones can be
got conveniently, that their length may
reach across each footing from one side
of the wall to the other, the setting of
each course with whole stones in the
thickness of the wall should be preferred.
But when the walls are thicker, and bond
stones in part can only be conveniently
procured, then every other succeeding
stone in the course may be a whole stone
in the thickness of the wall ; and every
other interval may consist of two stones
in the breadth of the footing; this is plac-
ing the header and stretcher alternately,
like Flemish bond in nine-inch brickwork.
But when bond stones cannot be had con-
veniently, every alternate stone should be
in length two-thirds of the breadth of the
footing upon the same side of the wall ;
then upon the other side of the wall a
stone of one-third of the breadth of the
footing should be placed opposite to one
of two-thirds; and one of two-thirds op-
posite to one of one third ; so that the
stones may be placed in the same man-
ner as those of the other side.

In broad foundations, where stones can-
not be procured for a length equal to two-

VOL. III.

thirds of the foundation, then build them
alternately, with the joints on the upper
bed of each footing, so that the joint of
every two stones may fall as nearly as pos-
sible in the middle of the length of the
one, or each adjoining stone ; observing
to dispose the stones alike on each side
of every footing. A wall, the superstruc-
ture of which is built of unhewn stone
laid in mortar, is called a ruble wall. They
are of two kinds, coursed and uncoursed.
The most common kind of ruble is the
uncoursed, of which the greater part of
the stones is crude, as they came out of
the quarry, and the rest hammer dressed.
This kind of walling is very inconvenient
for the building of bond timbers ; but if
they are to be preferred to plugging, the
backing must be levelled in every height
in which the bond timbers are disposed.
The best kind of ruble is the coursed ; the
courses are all of accidental thicknesses,
adjusted by a sizing rule, as the slating
of a roof; the stones are either hammer
dressed or axed. This kind of work is
favourable for the disposition of bond tim-
bers : but as all buildings, constructed
either in whole or in part of timber, are
liable to be burnt, strong well built walls
should never be bound with timber, but
should rather be plugged ; for if such ac-
cident take place, the walls will be less
liable to warp.

BUILDING.

to the strength of the work to select the
stones in each course, so that every alter-
nate ashler may have broader beds than
those of every ashler placed in each alter-
nate interval. In every course of ashler
facing bond stones should be introduced,
and their number should be proportioned
to the length of the course. This should
be strictly attended to in long ranges of
stones, both in walls without apertures,
and in the courses that form wide piers ;
when they are wide, every bond stone of
one course should fall in the middle of
every two bond stones in the course be-
low. In every pier where the jambs are
coursed with the ashler, and also in every
pier where the jambs are one entire
height, every alternate stone next to the
aperture in the former case, and every al-
ternate stone next to the jambs in the lat-
ter case, should bond through the wall ;
and also every other stone should be plac-
ed lengthwise, in each return of an angle,
not less than the average length of an ash-
ler. Bond stones should have no taper in
their beds ; the end of every bond stone,
as well as the end of every return stone,
should never be less than a foot. There
should be no such thing as a closer per-
mitted, unless it bond through the wall.
All the uprights, or joints, should be
square, or at right angles to the front of
the wall, and may recede about f ths of
an inch from the face, from thence gradu-
ally widen to the back, and thereby make
hollow, wedge-formed figures, which will
give sufficient cavities for the reception
of packing and mortar.

Both the upper and lower beds of every
stone should be quite level, and not
form acute angles, as is often the case ;
the joints from the face to about f ths of
an inch within the wall should be either
cemented with fine mortar, or with a mix-
ture of oil, putty, and white lead : the for-
mer is the practice both in London and
Edinburgh, and the latter in Glasgow.
The putty cement will stand longer than
most stones, and will be prominent when
the face of the stones has been corroded
with age. The whole of the ashler, ex-
cept that mentioned of the joints toward
the face of the wall, the ruble work, and
the core, should be set and laid in the
best mortar, and every stone laid on its
natural bed.

All wall-plates should be placed upon
a number of bond stones, and particularly
those of the roof; by which means they
may either be joggled upon the bonds, or
fastened to them by iron and lead. In
building walls or insulated pillars of very

short horizontal dimensions, not exceed-
ing a length of stones that can be easily
procured, every stone should be quite
level on the bed, without any degree of
concavity, and should be one entire piece
between every two horizontal joints.
This should be particularly attended to on
piers, where the insisting weight is great,
otherwise the stones will be in danger of
splintering and crushing to pieces, and
perhaps occasion a total demolition of the
fabric. Vitruvius has left us an account
of the manner of the construction of the
walls of the ancients, which were as fol-
lows : the reticulated is that wherein the
joints run in parallel lines, making angles
of 45° each with the horizon in contrary
ways, and consequently the faces of the
stones form squares, of which one diago-
nal is horizontal, and the other vertical.
This kind" of wall was much used by the
Romans in his time. The incertain wall
was formed of stones, of which the one
direction of the joints was horizontal, and
the other vertical ; but the vertical joints
of the alternate courses were not always
arranged in the same straight line : all
that they regarded was to make them
break joint. This manner of walling was'
used by the Romans in times antecedent
to the time of Vitruvius. Vitruvius di-
rects, that in both the reticulated and in-
certain walls, instead of filling up the
spaces between the sides with ruble pro-
miscuously, they should be strengthened
with abutments of hewn stone or bricks,
or common flints, built in walls two feet
high, and bound to the front with cramps
of iron. The emplection consisted of
two sides or shells of squared stone, with
alternate joints, and a ruble core in the
middle.

The walls of the Greeks were of three
kinds, named isodomum, pseudosodo-
mum, and emplection. The isodomum
had the courses all of an equal thickness ;
but the pseudosodomum had them un-
equally thick ; in both these walls, wher-
ever the squared work was discontinued,
the interval or core was filled up with
common hard stones, laid in the manner
of brick, with alternate joints. The em-
plection was constructed wholly of squar-
ed stones ; in these bond stones were
placed at regular intervals, and the stones
in the intermediate distance were laid
with alternate joints, in the same manner
as tbose of the face ; so that this manner
of Greek walling must have been much
stronger than the emplection of the Ro-
man villagers. This is a most strong and
durable manner of walling, and in modern

BUILDING.

iimesit may be practised with the utmost
success ; but in the common run of build-
ing's it would be too expensive.

Stone Columns. Stone columns should
be executed with as few joints as possi-
ble ; if thev can be procured in one
piece, they will have a strong and grand
effect. There should be no such thing as
vertical joints ; for they not only destroy
the beauty of the column, but are incon-
sistent with the laws of strength. Before
the number of pieces can be fixed, two
important circumstances must be taken
into consideration : first, to find out those
quarries which will produce durable
stones, of the size and colour wanted, and
the nearer to the place of erection the
better; next to inquire concerning* the
price of the carriage; if these come with-
in the maximum limit of what the proprie-
tor would chuse to fix, then the number
of pieces is determined ; but, if not, this
number must be increased, in order to
make it equal to, or less than, the pro-
posed sum, observing to choose the near-
est odd number. The circumstances be-
ing thus accommodated to each other,
and the stones laid down at the place in-
tended for building, draw a section of the
column through its axis, to the full size ;
divide the height of this section, by lines
parallel to the base, into heights equal in
number to that of the stones; by these
means, the diameters of each end of eve-
ry stone in the altitude will be deter-
mined. The upper and lower bodies of
each stone are first to be wrought exact-
ly to parallel planes ; and as one great
beauty of columns is to make them ap-
pear, at a small distance, as if they were
in one entire piece, they should be rub-
bed ?t first with a large coarse stone, in
order to prevent the surface from being
excavated, and then with a fine stone of
the same size as the coarse one ; with
the utmost care observing to try the
straight edge, or rule, as the rubbing*
goes on ; in this the edge of the rule
should always coincide with the surface,
otherwise the two superficies which are
to form the joint can never coincide.
The two beds of a stone being thus form-
ed, find the centre, and describe the cir-
cle at one end ; divide the circumference
into a convenient number of equal parts ;
(it is usual to divide it into six or eight ;)
draw lines from each point to the centre;
find the centre of the circle on the other
bed, so that the two centres may be in
the straight line forming the axis of the
column ; that is, when the straight line
joining their centres is perpendicular to
each bed, through the centre of this last

circle draw a straight line, parallel to any
one of the lines drawn through the cen-
tre and circumference of the former; also
from the point in the circumference of
the last drawn circle, where the line
drawn through the centre cuts this cir-
cle, divide the circumference into the
same number of equal parts as that of the
circle formerly drawn ; then draw lines
from the centre to each of the points so
divided, and these lines will be respec-
tively parallel to those of the former cir-
cle; the extremities of each pair of pa-
rallel lines, in each circumference, will
regulate the chissel draught, which is to
be wrought along the surface of the co-
lumn. The corresponding draught be-
ing made from each pair of parallels, the
spaces between will be more easily-
wrought down ; then, if the number of
pieces which compose the column ex-
ceed seven or nine, a straight edge may
be applied, the side of which always be-
ing- in a plane passing through the axis ;
but if fewer pieces are used, make a di-
minishing rule, that is, to the line of the
column : on the side of the diminishing1
rule draw a straight line parallel to the
axis ; this rule will serve to plumb the
stones in setting them, and to work the
convex surface of each stone : prepare
another rule, equal in length to that of a
stone having its edge straight the same
as the diminishing rule.

The cement used in setting eachco-"
lumn stone is either oil-putty, or white
lead, or white lead mixed with chalk-
putty, or fine mortar, or milled lead rolled
very thin. If the column be large, and
rolled lead be used, it needs only to form
a ring half an inch distant from the edge
of the joint, and let the joint at the edge
be filled with oil-putty.

Stone Stairs. When stairs are support-
ed by a wall at both ends, nothing diffi-
cult can occur in the construction ; in
this the inner ends of the steps may ei-
ther terminate into a solid newal, or be
tailed into a wall surrounding an open
newal. Where elegance is not required,
and where the newal does not exceed
two feet six inches, the ends of the steps
may be conveniently supported by a solid
pillar ; but when the newal is thicker, a
thin wall surrounding the newal would be
cheaper. In the stairs of a sunk story,
where there is a geometrical stair above,
the steps next to the newal are generally
supported upon a dwarf wall. Geome-
trical stairs have the outer end fixed in
the wall, and one of the edges of every
step supported by the edge of the step
below, and constructed with sally-formed

BUILDING.

Joints ; so that they cannot descend in the
inclined direction of the stair, not yet in
a vertical direction ; the upper sully of
every step forms an interior obtuse an-
gle, called a back rebate, and the lower,
of course, an exterior one; and the joint
formed of these sallies is called a joggle.
The upper part of the joint may be level
from the face of the risers, to about one
inch within the joint.

This is the plane of the tread of each
step, continued one inch within the sur-
face of each riser ; the lower part of the
joint is a narrow surface, perpendicular
to the rake of the stair, at the end next
to the newal. In stairs constructed of
most kinds of stone, the thickness of eve-
ry step, at the thinnest place of the end
next to the newal, has no occasion to ex-
ceed two inches, for steps of four feet in
length, that is, by measuring from the in-
terisr angle of every step perpendicular
to the rake.

The thickness of steps at. the interior
angle should be proportioned to the
length of the step ; but allowing that the
thickness of the steps at each interior an-
gle is sufficient at two inches, then will
the thickness of the steps at the interior
angles be half the number of inches that
the length of the steps has in feet ; thus
a step five feet long would be two inches
and a half at that place.

The stone platform of geometrical
stairs, viz. the landing half spaces, and
quarter spaces, are constructed of one,
two, or several stones, according to the
difficulty of procuring them. When the
platform consists of two or more stones,
the first platform stone is laid upon the
last step that is set, and the one end
•wedged in the wall : the next platform
stone is joggled, or rebated, into the one
next set, and the end again fixed in the
wall, as that and the preceding steps are,
and every stone in succession, till the
platform is completed. If there is occa-
sion for another flight of steps, the last
platform becomes a spring stone for the
next step ; the joint is to be joggled, as
•well as all the succeeding steps, in the
same manner as the first flight. Geome-
trical stairs, executed in stone, depend
on the following principle : that every
body must at least be supported by three
points, placed out of a straight line, and,
consequently, if two edges of a body in
different directions be secured to ano-
ther, the two bodies willbeimmoveable in
respect to each other. This last is the
case in a geometrical stair; one end of a
stair stone is always ta:(ed into the wall,
and one edge either rests on the ground

itself, or on the edge of the preceding^
stair stone, whether the stair stone be a
plat or step. The stones forming a plat-
form are generally of the same thickness
as those forming the steps.

Roofs. Roof is that part of a building
raised upon the walls, and extending over
all the parts of the interior, which con-
sists not only of the covering or exterior
part, but of all the necessary supports of
that part, for protecting its contents from
inclement seasons. There are many
forms of roofs, the most simple of which
is that which has only one plane, and is
called a shed roof ; but the form which
has always been, and still continues to be,
in most general use, wherever the nature
of climate requires it to be raised, is that,
the vertical section of which consists of
two sloping sides, is consequently trian-
gular, and called a span or pediment
roof.

Here it will be proper to say some-
thing of the changes of inclination or
pitch which have prevailed in this simple
form, among different nations, from time
to time, arising as well from the nature of
the climate 33 the caprice of the people,
and as transmitted down to the present
age. The ancient Egyptians, Babyloni-
ans, and Persians, as well as other eastern
nations, and also the present inhabitants
of those climates where rain seldom ap-
pears, make their roofs quite flat. The
ancient Greeks, perceiving t^ie inconve-
nience of this, raised them in the middle,
with a gentle inclination towards the
sides; the height from the middle to the
level of the walls not exceeding one-
ninth or one-eight part of the span ; as
may be seen by many ancient temples
still remaining in that country. The Ro-
mans made the height from one-fifth to
two-ninth parts of the span. After the
decline of the Roman empire, high pitch-
ed roofs began to be in general request
all over Europe, and the vertical section
of that which most generally prevailed
seems to have been an equilateral trian-
gle, which was considered as the standard.
In Germany, this has been remarkable
from very remote antiquity, as appears
from Vitruvius : the equilateral pitch,
and that of a higher one, appears to have
continued as long as pointed architecture
prevailed.

When Grecian and Roman architecture
was first introduced into this country
from Italy, roofs began to be made lower,
and the rafters were three-fourths of the
breadth of the building: this was called
true pitch, and subsequently the square
seems to have been considered as the

BUILDING.

true pitch. In these several gradations
of changes, the material for the covering
has been supposed to be impervious stone
or slates ; and the roofs themselves to be
those which cover ordinary dwellings;
for, after the Italian architecture began
to prevail in th« last century, platform
roofs, and those of a pediment pitch,
were introduced in many sumptuous man-
sions und public edifices ; but the mate-
rial employed for covering was lead. At
the present day, when good slates are to
be had in abundance, we can execute
roofs to the Grecian declivity; but with
regard to the general practice, the pitch
of ihe roof depends on the style of ar-
chitecture introduced in the buildings ;
the proportion of the pitch, in ordinary
dwellings, is between one-third and one
fourth part of the span ; mansions and
public buildings are executed in every
style that has prevailed in different times
and among different people ; and the
proportion of the roof, as well as other
parts, are rigidly adhered to ; this con-
sequently produces a great diversity in
the heights.

There are some advantages in high
pitched roofs ; they discharge the rain
with greater rapidity ; snow continues to
lie a much shorter time on their surface,
and they are less liable to be stripped by
heavy winds.

Low roofs require large slates, and the
utmost care in the execution ; but they
have, however, this advantage, that they
are much cheaper, since they require
shorter timbers, and consequently much
smaller scantling; besides, they huve less
pressure on the walls. The roof is one
of the principal ties to a building, when
executed with judgment, as it binds the
exterior walls together. There are a va-
riety of forms in the vertical section of
roofs, besides the simple and customary
one above mentioned. The figure of the
roof depends on two or more vertical and
horizontal sections. A span, or pent
roof, is that which stands upon walls of a
quadrangular plan, and of which the
transverse vertical section Js every where
a triangle throughout its length, and
slopes from two opposite sides. A hipt,
or Italian roof is that, the sides of which
incline alike to the horizon, and termi-
nate either in a point, line, or raised plat-
form Vitruvius calls a hipt roof, which
rises from a rectangular plan, a testudi-
nated roof, or simply a testudo. When
the plan of a roof is a parallelogram, and
when the vertical section across the two
opposite walls, which have not a greater
span than that across the other two walls,

consists of four sloping sides on the out-
side, each two forming an exterior an-
gle, the roof is called a curb or mansard
roof, whether there are Cables on the
other two sides of the building, or the
different sides of the roof, equally in-
clined, all around, upon each respective
wall

Figures of roofs which rise from square,
rectangular, and polygonal plans, forming
only exterior angles on the outside, and,
which terminate in a point over the cen-
tre of the plan, are denominated from
the base on which they rise, and from a
vertical section passing through the apex
perpendicular to any one of the sides of
the base and to the horizon; that is, a roof
standing upon a square pentagonal, or oc-
tagonal plan, having a triangular vertical
section, is called a square pentagonal or
octagonal pyramidal roof; when such a
roof is said to be polygonal, the epithet
only applies to the figure of the base. An
octangular roof is one whose base is an
octagon, whatever be the form of the
vertical section. All roofs, the horizon-
tal sections of which are similar figures,
either polygons as above described, or
circles or ellipses, and the vertical sec-
tions of which are segments of convex
curves, such as of circles, ellipses, para-
bolas, &c. are called domes ; hence a
square dome is one that rises from a
square plan; an octangular dome, from
an octangular plan ; a circular dome from
a circular plan ; and an elliptic dome
from an elliptical plan. Domes upon cir-
cular plans are called cupolas. A circular
or elliptical roof, the vertical section of
which consists of two similar and equal
concave curves meeting in th£ apex, is
called a trumpet mouthed roof. When
the roof is circular or elliptical, and the
vertical section an isosceles triangle, the
apex of which is that of the roof, the roof
is simply called a conical orconoidal roof.
When the vertical section of a circu-
lar dome is a parabola, hyperbola, or el-
lipsis, the dome is then called a parabo-
loidal dome, a hyperboloidal dome, or
ellipsoidal dome, these epithets com-
prehending both the base of the figure
and vertical section. All figures of roofs,
which insist on the foregoing bases,
whatever be the form of their verti-
cal sections, are called by the general
name of pavilion roofs, as they only cover
one simple building. Frdm the intersec-
tions of two or more simple roofs of the
same or of different kinds, a multitude of
complex figures will be formed : the
plans of some of these are denominated
by letters of the alphabet, as an ell roof

BUILDING.

is one which rests upon a plan in the form
of the letter L : a tee roof upon a plan in
the form of the letter T; and an aitch
roof upon a plan formed like the letter
H ; but when two common roofs, having
their ridges parallel to each other, and a
side of the one either joins one of the
other, or these two sides intersect each
other, and thereby leave a gutter above
the roof; then the roof which is thus com-
pounded of the two simple roofs is call-
ed an em roof, as the vertical section is in
the form of the letter M : or rather an in-
verted W as M : this is an instance where
the roof is denominated by the vertical
section, and not by tbe plan. All roofs
whatever are said to be truncated, whe-
ther they terminate in a plane or raised
platform, or have a void at the top, bound-
ed by a level curb.

When the side of a roof is a plane sur-
face, except at the eaves, at which place
it is concave, the roof is said to have a
bell cast at that place.

The general names of the timbers are,
straining pieces, tie pieces, and bearers ;
under straining pieces are included, prin-
cipal rafters, camber beams, hip and val-
ley rafters, collar beams, or straining
beams, straining sills, struts, auxiliary raf-
ters, or principal braces and studs.

Under the pieces are included, tie
beams, diagonal ties, and truss posts; and
under bearers are included, plates, pur-
lins, common rafters, small rafters, ridge
pieces, boarding and dragon beams.

The sloping sides of roofs are of two
kinds, single and double, or plain and
carcase: single roofs are those which have
one row of rafters upon the same side ;
double* o* carcase roofs are those which
have two ties of rafters; the lower tie sup-
porting the upper by the intervention of
transverse pieces called purlins.

Stone liridges. A stone bridge is a thick
wall built across a hollow, with one, two,
three, or a series of apertures, formed in-
to arcades, which either serve to lighten
the masonry, or to give passage to a
stream of water, or both.

"When a stone bridge is resolved upon,
the first consideration is its place : in this
several particulars should be taken into
consideration, and the advantages com-
pared to the disadvantages. As the height
of the bridge depends on the banks of
the river, the expense will be increased
according to their height: therefore acon-
venient situation should be chosen, where
the banks will be adequate in height to
that necessary for the bridge, though the
expense will be increased by the length
of the bridge. In most cases, where the

river runs in a valley, a wide part of
the stream must be preferred to a narrow
part, as the water at this narrower part
has not only a greater degree of velocity
of itself, but the velocity would also be
increased by the piers of the bridge ; in
times of heavy floods it would be liable
to be thrown down, and in a navigable
river the navigation would be impeded.
As the expense depends on the bed of
the river, it must also be taken into the
account.

These being settled, the form and
height of the arches come next under
consideration; the height of the arches,
which determine that of the bridge, de-
pends on the rise of the water in time of
floods ; and whether there is to be a na-
vigation, and what kind of vessels there
are to pass.

Stone bridges ought to be constructed
with as few arches as possible, which will
not only give greater beauty, but will re-
quire fewer foundations, piers, and cen-
terings, and also easier passage for craft.
The piers ought to be so proportioned as
to enable them to withstand the thrust of
the adjacent arches, though the rest were
thrown down. The number of arches
ought to be odd, in order that one may
stand in the middle, where the stream
has its greatest velocity.

When the passage-way along the top
of the bridge is a convex curve, the arch-
es should diminish from the middle to-
wards each extreme, so as to be similar
to the middle one ; this will allow a more
free passage to the water, the velocity
being greatest in the middle. With re-
spect to the choice of arches, the ellipti-
cal, cycloidal, and equilibrated arches,
are not only convenient, in allowing more
room for the passage of ships at the
hanches, but they require fewer materials
than most other curves of the same di-
mensions.

When the extrados is convex, and the
height of the arch small in proportion to
the span, a segment of a circle may be
used with success : in this case the arch
should not exceed 60 degrees.

These particulars being fixed, the prac-
tice is as follows:— When the foundation
of a stone bridge is to be laid in a river
which is not very deep, a single or dou-
ble inclosure of wood is formed, and the
intervening space is rammed well with
clay or chalk, to prevent the water from
coming in. These inclosures are either
made with piles driven closely together,
and dovetailed at their jointings, or by
piles driven at certain distances from one
another, and grooved on the sides oppo-

BUI

BUL

site each other, and the intervals are shut
with boards let in between the grooves.
This kind of fence against the water is
called a batterdeaux, or coffer-dam. The
batterdeaux, or coffer-dam, requires a
good foundation of solid earth or clay. If
the bed of the river be of a loose consist-
ence, the water will ooze through it in
too great abundance. The sides of the
inclosure must be made very strong, and
well braced within, to prevent the am-
bient water from forcing its way into the
batterdeaux.

AVhere the water is deep, but having a
sound bottom, a strong chest, called a
caisson, must be formed, so that the sides
may easily be disengaged from the bottom
of the river, being bevelled where the
pier is to be built, and the caisson pro-
perly placed over it, and kept in this
situation by ropes: begin to build, and as
the work advances it will sink gradually,
and at the same time keep continually
bracing the sides with timber, to prevent
the ambient water from crushing it toge-
ther, and thereby not only spoiling the
work, but drowning til e workmen. When
the pier is of such height as to be deeper
than the water, the sides may be disen-
gaged, and the bottom of the caisson will
remain under the pier, as a footing on
which it is to rest : for this purpose the
bottom of the caisson should be made
very strong. AVhere the foundation is not
firm, recourse must be had to piling, as
in other such foundations.

With regard to the superstructure of a
stone bridge, the arch stones sometimes
terminate in a curve parallel to the in-
trados, and sometimes the joints of the
arch stones are continued through the
spandrils, observing to break joints side-
ways; at other times, the upper ends of
the arch stones terminate so as to fit the
beds and upright joints of every course
of stone. The joints of the arch stones
are sometimes joggled with plugs,in order
to prevent them from passing each other.
The piers are^generally solid pieces of
masonry from the foundation till they
come to the spring, or above the spring
of the arch ; thence arches, or complete
cylindrical vaults, are sometimes thrown,
in order to lighten the bridge, and brace
every two adjacent arches between which
they are placed. When the abutments
are deep, and extend considerably along
the road-way at each end, walls on each
side of the road-way should be built,
similar to those used in aquatic piers,
r strengthened with counter-
or vaulted under and across the
\ hen there is a heavy pres-

sure of earth between the side of the
abutments, these sides should be both,
concave in any vertical, and also in any
horizontal sections.

In stone bridges, when the extrados is
a curre, and when the work' is coursed,
the intersection of the bedding joint of
every two courses on the face of the
masonry ought to be parallel to the in-
tersection of the extrados with this face,
as this position of the joints is not only
more beautiful, but is also more agree-
able to the laws of strength, than those
bedding joints which have their intersec-
tions in horizontal planes.

BULB, or BULBOUS root, in the anato-
my of plants, expresses a root of around
or roundish figure, and usually furnished
with fibres at its base. See BOTAWX-.

BULBOCOD1UM, in botany, a genus
of the Hexandria Monogynia class and
order. Liliaceous plants. Order Spatha-
ceae : Narcissi, Jussieu. Essential charac-
ter: corolla funnel-form, hexapetalous,
with a narrow claw bearing the stamens;
capsule superior. There is but one spe-
cies, viz. B. vernum, spring flowering bul-
bocodium, resembles the common col-
chicum in shape, though much smaller ;
it is covered with a dark brown skin.
About the middle of February, according
to the season, the flowers spring up,
inclosed within three brownish green
leaves, opening themselves as soon almost
as they are out of the ground, and shew
their buds for flowers within them very
white, before they open far ; though
sometimes purplish at first appearing.
There is frequently but one flower, and
never more than two ; they are smaller
than those of colchicum. After the flow-
ers are past, the leaves grow to the length
of a finger, and in the middle of them
rises up the seed vessel, which is smaller,
shorter, and harder than that of colchi-
cum, and contains many small brown,
seeds. It is a native of Spain and of Rus-
sia, in mountainous situations.

BULIMY, a disease in which the patient
is affected with insatiable and perpe-
tual desire of eating ; and unless he is
indulged, he often falls into fainting fits.
It is also called fames canina, canine ap-
petite.

In the third volume of the " Memoirs
of the Medical Society of London" is in-
serted the history of a case of bulimy, ac-
companied with vomiting, wherein 379lbs.
of meat and drink were swallowed in the
space of six days ; yet the patient lost
flesh rapidly. A cure was effected by
giving- food boiled down to a jelly, fre-
quently, and in small quantities. In this

BUL

form the food was retained, and the body
being duly supplied with nourishment,
the stomach and rest of the system reco-
vered their proper tone and energy. But
the most extraordinary instance of buli-
my, which perhaps ever occurred, is that
recorded in the third volume of the " Me-
dical and Physical Journal," communi-
cated by Dr. Johnson, commissioner of
sick and wounded seamen, to Dr. Blane,
formerly physician to the navy. The
subject was a Polish soldier, named
Charles Domery, in the service of the
French, on board of the Hoche frigate,
which was captured by the squadron un-
der the command of Sir John Borlase
Warren, off Ireland, in 1799. He was
21 years of age, and stated that his fa-
ther and brothers had been remarkable
for their voracious appetites. Fie began
\vhenhewasl3yearsofage. He would de-
vour raw and even live cats, rats, and dogs,
besides bullock's liver, tallow candles,
and the entrails of animals. One day (viz.
September 7th, 1799) an experiment
was made of how much this man could
eat in one day. This experiment was
made in the presence of the before-men-
tioned Dr. Johnson, Admiral Child, and
Mr. Forster, agent for prisoners at Liver-
pool, and several other gentlemen. He
had breakfasted at 4 o'clock in the morn-
ing on 4>lbs of raw cow's udder ; at half
past nine o'clock there were set before
him 5lbs. of raw beef and 12 tallow can-
dles of lib. weight, together with 1 bottle
of porter ; these he finished by half past
ten o'clock; at one o'clock there were
put before him 5lbs. more of beef, \lb. of
candles, and three bottles of porter ; he
was then locked up in the room, and cen-
tries were placed at the windows, to pre-
vent his throwing away any of his provi-
sions. At two o'clock he had nearly
finished the whole of the candles and
great part of the beef; but without having
had any evacuations by vomiting, stool,
or urine. His skin was cool, pulse regu-
lar, and spirits good. At a quarter past
six he had devoured the whole, and de-
clared he could eat more ; but the pri-
soners on the outside having told him
that experiments were making upon him,
he began to be alarmed.

BULK heads are partitions made athwart
the ship with boards, by which one part
is divided from the other ; as the great
cabin, gun-room, bread-room, and several
other divisions. The bulk head afore is
the partition between the forecastle and
gratings in the head.

BULK breaking. See BREAKING.

BULL. See Bos,

See LOXIA.

BULL, among ecclesiastics, a written
letter dispatched by order of the Pope,
from the Roman chancery, and sealed
with lead, being written on parchment,
by which it is partly distinguished from
a brief. See BRIEF.

BULL, golden, an edict or imperial con-
stitution, made by the Emperor Charles
IV. reputed to be the magna chartu, or
the fundamental law of the German em-
pire.

It is called golden, because it has a gold-
en seal, in the form of a pope's bull, tied
with yellow and red cords of silk : upon
one side is the Emperor represented sit-
ting on his throne, and on the other the
capital of Rome. It is also called Caro-
line, on Charles IV. 's account Till the
publication of the golden bull, the form
and ceremony of the election of an em-
peror were dubious and undetermined,
and the number of the electors not fixed.

This solemn edict regulated the func-
tions, rights, privileges, and pre-eminen-
ces of the electors. The original, which
is in Latin, on vellum, is preserved at
Frankfort; this ordinance, containing
thirty articles or chapters, was approved
of by all the princes of the empire, and
remains still in force.

BULLA, in natural history, a genus of
insects of the Vermes Testacea. Animal
a limax ; shell univalve, convolute, un-
armed with teeth ; aperture a little
straightened, oblong, longitudinal, very
entire at the base ; pillar oblique, smooth.
There are nearly sixty species. B. ligna-
ria is found on European coasts, and is a-
bout three inches long. The shell is thin,
of a dirty colour, but within it is white.
The inhabitants of this species, and. ac-
cording to Gmelin, those of m«st of the
genus, are furnished with an organ re-
sembling the gizzard of a fowl, and which
they appear to use for the purpose of
masticating their food.

BULLET, an iron or leaden ball, or
shot, wherewith fire-arms are loaded.
Bullets are of various kinds; viz. red-hot
bullets, made hot in a forge, intended to
set fire to places where combustible mat-
ters are found. Hollow bullets, or shells
made cylindrical, with an aperture and
fuse at one end, which giving fire to the
inside when in the ground, it bursts;, and
has the same effect with a mine. Chain-
bullets, which consist of two balls, joined
by a chain three or four feet apart.
Branch-bullets, two balls joined by a bar
of iron, five or six inches apart. Two-
headed bullets, culled also angles, tw«

BUL

Lalves of a bullet, joined by a bar or
chain.

The diameter of a leaden bullet, weigh-
ing one pound, is 1.69 inches, according
to Sir Jonas Moore ; or, by a table in
Midler's " Treatise of Artillery," 1.672
inches : and the diameter of any other
bullet is found by dividing 1.69 inches by
the cube root of the number, which ex-
presses how many of them make a pound;
or by subtracting continually the third
part of the logarithm of the -number of
bullets in the pound, from the logarithm
.2278867 of 1.69, and the difference will
be the logarithm of the diameter requir-
ed. Thus the diameter of a bullet, of
which 12 make a pound, will be found by
subtracting 359/270, a third part of
1.0791812 the logarithm of I2,fiom the
given logarithm .2278867 ; or because
this logarithm is less lhan the former,
an unit must be added, so as to have
1.2278867 ; and then the difference
8681597 will be the logarithm of the

c
il-

-hat
for,

diameter sought, which is .738 inches,
observing that the number found vvi]' ue
always a decimal, because the nurii'-.i-r
subtracted is greater than the other.
may also deduce the diameter of u ;
let from its given weight, provided
the specific gravity of lead -s known
since a cubic foot of lead \vvig is li^*5
ounces, and 678 is to 355 as .he cube uf
a foot, or 12 inches, i. e. 1728 to the con-
tent of a sphere, which is therefore
59.9.7 ounces : and since spheres a. as
the cubes of their diameters, 'he we.^ht
59^.9. 7 is to 16 ounces, or one pound, as
the cube 1728 is to the cube of the d.ame-
ter of a sphere, which weighs s x ^ 11
ounces, or one pound ; which cube is
4.66 63, and its root is 1.6706, the diame-
ter sought.

By the rule above laid down is calcu-
lated the following table, shewing the di-
ameters of leaden bullets, from 1 to 39 in
the pound.

TABLE.

1.69

1 -41

1 17-i 1.064

0.988

0.930

J 883

i 1.845

U.8U

0.784

0.76.

•;.7o8

0 7 9; 0.701 0. 85

j.671

0.657

U.r.45

0.623

0.612

U.6oo

.5940.586

0.57r

;.570

0.563

0.556

>. 51

0.544

0.537

0.53-

.5270.52llo.5;

.512:0.5->7.>.5 3

0 49 b

The upper horizontal column shews
the number of bullets to a pound; the
second their diameters; the third, the
diame ers of those of 10, 11, 12, &c. and
the fourth those of 20, 21, 22, &c. and the
last, those of 30, 31, 32, &c.

The government allows 11 bullets in
the pound ibr the proof of muskets, and
14.5 in the pound, or <:9 in two pounds,
for service , 17 for the proof of carabines,
and 20 for service ; and 28 in the pound
for proof of pistols, and 34 for service.

The diameter of musket bullets differs
but -jU-h part from that of the musket-
barrel; for if the shot but just rolls into
the barrel, it is sufficient Cannon bul-
lets or balls are of different diameters and
weights, according to the nature of the
piece.

BULLION, uncoined gold or silver in
the mass.

Those metals are called so, either when
smelted from the native ore, and not per-

VOL. ill

fectly refined ; or when they are perfect-
ly refined, but melted clou n in bars or
ingots or in am -un wrought bod)", ot any
decree of fineness

When gold and silver are in their puri-
ty, they are so soft and flexible, that they
cannot well be brought into any fas; on
for use, without being first reduced and
hardened with an alloy of some other
baser metal.

To prevent those abuses, which some
might be tempted to commit in the mak-
ing of such alloys, the legislators of civi-
lized countries have ordained, that there
shall be no more than a certain propor-
tion of a baser metal to a particular q .an-
tity of pure gold or silver, in or-:t t to
make them of the finem ss of what is
called the standard gold or silver Oi such
a country.

According to the laws of England, ull
sorts of wrought olate inger-.rai ought
to be made to the legal standard ; and the

BUN

BUG

price of our standard gold and silver is
tht common rule whereby *o set a value
on their bullion, whether the same be in
ingots, bars, dust, or in foreign specie;
whence it is easy to conceive, that the va-
lue of bullion cannot be exactly known,
without being- first assayed, that the ex-
act quantity of pure metal therein con-
tained may be determined, and conse-
quently whether it be above or below the
standard.

Silver and gold, whether coined or un-
coined (though used for a common mea-
sure of other things) are no less a com-
modity than wine, tobacco, or cloth ; and -
may, in many cases, be exported as much
to the national advantage as any other
commodity.

BUMALDA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Digynia. Natural order of Du-
mosx. Rhamni, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter: corolla five-petalled ; styles vil-
lose , capsule two-celled, two-beaked.
There is but one species; viz. B. trifolia,
with a shrubby stem ; branches close, in
all parts smooth ; branches obscurely an-
gular, jointed, purple ; leaves opposite,
petioled, ternate, pale underneath, on
very short capillary petioles, spreading
very much, or reflex ; flowers terminat-
ing the branches in racemes, or capillary
peduncles. Native of Japan.

BUMELIA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character: corolla five-cleft,
with a five-leaved nectary ; drupe one-
seeded. There are seven species, all
trees or shrubs, and natives of the West-
Indies.

BUNIAS, in botany, a genus of the Te-
tradynamia Siliquosa. Natural order of
Siliquosa. Cruc'rfer* , Jussieu. Essential
character : silicic deciduous, four-sided,
muricated with unequal acuminate an-
gles. There are nine species, of which B.
cornuta, horned bunias, is a very singular
plant. It has silicic transversely oval,
finishing on each side in a horn, or very
long and strong spine, so that the silicic
resembles a pair of horns ; in the middle
of the silicic are four small spines, direct-
ed different ways. It is a native of the
Levant and Siberia. B. spinosa, thorny
bun>as, is an annual plant, and a native of
the South of France, Switzerland, Austria,
and Italy.

BUNIUM, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Digynia class and order. Na-
tural order of Umbellate, Essential cha-
racter : cor. uniform ; umbel crowded ;
fruits ovate. There is but one species,
viz. B bulbocastanum, earth nut, or pig
nut, has a perennial, tuberous root on

the outside, of a chesnut colour, within
white, solid, putting forth slender fibres
from the sides and bottom, of an agree a
ble sweetish taste, lying deep in the
ground, commonly four or five inches
deep, the stems from the surface taper-
ing towards it, flexuose or bending to and
from, and of a white colour; the univer-
sal involucre consists seldom of more
than one, two, or three very slender
leaves, but in most instances is altoge-
ther wanting; the partial umbel has.
sometimes twenty rays; the petals are
lanceolate, entire, but rolled inwards, so
as to appear as if they were emarginate ;
the filaments are longer than the petals ;
the pistils at first close, after divaricate,
but never bend back. This description
applies to the plant as usually found in
Great Britain. That Brunium which is
most common in many parts of the conti-
nent is somewhat different from ours;
the segments of the leaf are not so fine,
and nearer to parsly, whereas ours ap-
proach to fennel. The root is not so far
within the ground, the leaves are larger
and greener, and it sends forth leaves
from the bulb itself. With us it grows on
heaths, in pastures, woods, and among"
bushes, in a gravelly or sandy soil : it
flowers in May and June.

BUNT, of a sail, the middle part of it;
formed designedly into- a bag or cavity,
that the sail may gather more wind. It
is used mostly in top sails, because courses
are generally cut square, or with but
small allowance for bunt or compass. The
bunt holds much leeward wind, that is, it
hangs much to leeward .

BUNT lines are small lines made fast to
the bottom of the sails, in the middle
part of the bolt rope, to a cringle, and so
are reeved through a small block, seized
to the yard. Their use is, to trice up
the bunt of the sail, for the better furling
it up.

BUNTIXG. See EMBEIUZA.

BUOY, at sea, a short piece of wood,
or a close-hooped barrel, fastened so as to
float directly over the anchor, that the
men who go in the boat to weigh the an-
chor may know where it lies.

BUOT is also a piece of wood, or cork,
sometimes an empty cask, well closed,
swimming on the surface of the water,
and fastened by a chain or cord to a large
stone, piece of broken cannon, or the
like, serving to mark the dangerous
places near a coast, as rocks, shoals,
wrecks of vessels, anchors, &c.

There are sometimes, instead of buoys,
pieces of wood placed in form of masts, in
conspicuous places ; and sometimes large

BUI*

UUP

trees are planted in a particular manner,
in number two at least, to be taken in a
right line, the one hiding" the other, so as
the two may appear to the eye no more
than one.

To BUOY up the cable, is to fasten some
pieces of wood, barrels, &c. to the cable,
near the anchor, that the cable may not
touch the ground, in case it be foul or
rocky, lest it should be fretted and cut
off.

BUIJHAGA, the African beaf-eater, in
natural history, a genus of birds of the
order of Picae. Generic character : its
bill is straight, and somewhat square ; its
mandibles are gibbous, entire, more gib-
bous externall}', and its legs well formed
for walking. It is found not only in Se-
negal, but near Caffrana. its manners
much resemble those of the starling. It
feeds on various kinds of insects, and
alighting on the backs of antelopes, sheep,
and oxen, and by pressure on the elevat-
ed part of the hide, which contains the
larvx of the oestrus, forcing this out,
greatly relieves the animal, and procures
itself an exquisite banquet. ^-^_

BUPHTHALMUM, in botany, a genus
of the Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua.
Natural order of Composite Oppositifo-
lise. Corymbiferae, Jussieu. Essential
character : stigma of the hermaphrodite
floscules undivided : seeds have the sides,
especially in the ray, edged ; down an
obscure edge ; receptacle chaffy. There
are twelve species, of which, B. frutes-
cens, shrubby ox-eye, rises with several
woody stems from the root, and grows to
the height of eight or ten feet, furnish-
ed with leaves very unequal in size, some
of which are narrow and long, others
broad and obtuse. The foot-stalks of the
larger leaves have, on their upper side,
near their base, two sharp teeth standing
upward, and a little higher there are ge-
nerally two or three more growing on the
edge of the leaves. The flowers are pro-
duced at the ends of the branches single:
these are of a pale yellow colour, and
have scaly calyxes. It grows naturally in
America. B. arborescens, tree ox-eye,
seldom grows higher than three feet,
sending out many stalks from the root,
which are succulent ; it has spear-shaped
leaves, placed opposite ; the flowers are
produced upon foot-stalks, which are two
inches long. These flowers are larger
than those of the first sort, of a bright yel-
low colour. They appear in July, Au-
gust, and September. Some of these
plants are shrubs, but most of them are
herbs. The flowers are commonly ter-
minating, and mostly of a yellow colour.

BUPLEURUM, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Digynia. Natural order
of Umbellate. Essential character : in-
volucres of the umbellule larger, five-
leaved; petals involuted ; fruit roundish,
compressed, striated. There are 19 spe-
cies, of which B. rotundifolium, common
thorough wax, so called from the singular
circumstance of the stalk waxing or grow-
ing through the leaf; the root is annual,
small and fibrous ; the stem a foot high,
upright, round; perfectly smooth, alter-
nately branched; every part of the plant
is remarkably hard and rigid, and hus a
slight aromatic smell. It is a native of
most parts of Europe. B. stellatum, star-
ry hare's ear, has a perennial root, with
a stem about 18 inches high, with long
grass-like root-leaves, some ending ob-
tusely, others drawing to a point ; scarce-
ly any on the stem, except one embrac-
ing leaf under a branch. Universal invo-
lucre of one, two, or tiiree leaves. Partial
involucre, coloured, longer than the
flowers, eight or nine-cleft at the edge,
but united at bottom, so as to form a sort
of basin, in which the flowers are lodged.
It is a native of the Alps, of Switzerland,
and Dauphine. Most of the Bupleurums
are herbaceous plants, some of them are
shrubby, and one is thorny ; the leaves
are mostly simple and entire. The little
flowers are yellow, and but few in an um-
bel. The involucre is many-leaved and
short, though it has sometimes only three
or five leaves. They are almost all of
them natives of Switzerland and the south
of France.

BUPRESTIS, in natural history, a ge-
nus of insects of the order Coleoptera.
Generic character : antennae setaceous,
of the length of the thorax ; head half
withdrawn beneath the thorax. This ge-
nus of insects is very conspicuous, on ac-
count of the superior brilliancy of its co-
lours, with which many of the larger spe-
cies shine with a metallic lustre It is a
very numerous genus, consisting, accord-
ing to Gmelin, of 156 species. Among
these we shall notice the B gigantea,
which is the largest hitherto discovered,
measuring two inches and a half in length:
the thorax is smooth, resembling the co-
lour of polished beil-metal, and the wing-
sheaths are of a gilded copper colour,
with a cast of blue-green. It is a native
of India, China, and many other parts of
Asia, and is also found in South Amenca.
Its beauty is so very singular, that the
Chinese attempt to imitate it on bronze,
in which they have sometimes succeeded
so well, that the copy has been mistaken
for the reality. This insect proceeds

BUR

from a large white larva, resembling that
of ihe 1: canus cervus, or great stag-chaff-
er. Of the European insects of this ge-
nus, the B. rustica is one of the largest,
measuring" about an inch and a half, and
of a coppery colour, with several longitu-
dinal ;'urro\vs along the wing-shells ; the
thorax of a deep blue-green, with numer-
ous impressed points : it is found in the
woods. The European Buprestes fall far
short of the Indian and American species,
bo i. r.i point of size and splendour, though
among- then) may be numbered several
elegant insects.

BURCARDIA, in botany, so named in
honour of Henry Burckliard, a genus of
the Pentandria Pentagynia class and or-
der. Essential character : calyx five-
leaved ; corolla f.ve-petalled ; capsule
angular, one-celled, three-valved ; seven
or eight seeded. There is but one spe-
cies, viz B. villosa, an annual plant, with
a branched stem twb feet high, hirsute,
\vith reddish brown hairs. Flowers at
the end of the stem and branches, axil-
lary, solitary, on long hairy peduncles.
The whole plant is covered with stiff
hah-s. It is found on the sandy coasts of
Cayenne and Guiana.

BURDEN, or BUHTHEX, in a general
sense, implies a load or weight, supposed
to be as much as a man, horse. &c. can
well carry. A sound and healthy man
can raise a weight equal to his own. An
able horse can draw 35-Jlh. though for a
length of time 300/6. is sufficient. Hence
calculations are formed by the artillery
officers. One horse will draw as much as
seven men.

BURDEN of a sMp'is its contents, or num
ber of tons it will carry. The burden of
a ship may be determined thus ; multi-
ply the length of the keel, taken within
board, by the breadth of the ship within
board, taken from the midship-beam,
from plank to plank, and multiply the
product by the depth of the hold, taken
from the plank below the keelson to the
under part of the upper deck plank, and
divide the last product by 94, then the
quotient is the content of the tonnage
required.

BURGAGE, in law, a tenure proper to
boroughs and towns, whereby the inhabi-
tants hold their lands and tenements of
the King, or other lord, at a certain yearly
rate. This tenure is described by Glan-
vil, and is expressly said by Littleton to
be but tenure in socage. It is indeed on-
ly a kind of town socage ; as common so-
cage, by which other lands are holden,
is usually of a rural nature. A borough
is usually distinguished from other towns

by the right of sending members to par-
liament ; and where the right of Election
is by burgage tenure, that alone is a proof
of the antiquity of the borough. Tenure
in burgage, therefore, or burgage tenure,
is where houses, or lands which were for-
merly the scite of houses, in an ancient
borough, are held by some lord in com-
mon socage, by a certain establishment.
The free socage in which these tene-
ments are held, seems to be plainly a
remnant of Saxon liberty ; and this may
account for the great variety of customs,
affecting many of these tenements so
held in ancient burgage ; the principal
and most remarkable of which is that call-
ed borough English ; which see. There
are also other special customs in different
burgage tenures; as in some, that the
wife shall be endowed of all her hus-
band's tenements, and not of the third part
only, as at the common law : and in others,
that a man might dispose of his tenements
by will, which in general was not per-
mitted after the conquest till the reign
of Henry VIII. ; though in the Saxon
times it was allowable. A pregnant proof,
says Judge Blackstone, that these liber-
ties of Socage tenure were fragments of
Saxon liberty.

BURGESS, an inhabitant of a borough,
or one \\ ho possesses a tenement there-
in. In other countries, burgess and ci-
tizen are confounded together ; but with
us they are distinguished : the word is
also applied to the magistrates of some
towns. Burgess is now ordinarily used
for the representative of a borough-town
in parliament.

BURGH-6o*e signifies a contribution
towards the building or repairing of cas-
tles or wallsj for the defence of a borough
or city.

BURGLARY, in law, or nocturnal
house-breaking, an unlawful entering into
another man's dwelling, wherein some
person is, or into a church, in the night-
time, in order to commit some felony, or
to kill some person, or to steal something
thence, or do some other felonious act,
whether the same be executed or not.
This crime has been always regarded as
very heinous ; partly on account of the
terror which it occasions, and parlly be-
cause it is a forcible invasion and distur-
bance of that right of habitation, which
every individual might require, even in
a state of nature, and against which 'the
laws of civil society have particularly
guarded. Whilst they allow the posses-
sor to kill the aggressor, who attempts to
break into a house in the night time, they
also protect and avenge him, in case the

BUR

assailant should be too powerful. Such
regard, indeed, has the law of England to
the immunity of a man's house, that it
stiles it his castle, and will never suffer it
to be violated with impunity ; for this
reason no outward doors can in general be
broken open to execute any civil process;
though, in criminal cases, the public safety
supersedes the private. Hence, also, in
part, arises the animadversion of the law
upon eves-droppers, nuisancers, and in-
cendiaries; and to this principle it must
be assigned, that a man may assemble peo-
ple together lawfully (at least if they do
not exceed eleven) without danger of
raising a riot, rout, or unlawful assembly,
in order to protect and defend his house;
which he is not permitted to do in any
other case. The definition of a burglar,
as given by Sir Edward Coke, is, " he that
by night breaketh and entereth into a
mansion-house, with intent to commit a
felony." In this definition, says Judge
Biaclistone, there are four things to be
considered ; the time, the place, the man-
ner, and the intent. 1 . The time must be
by night, and not by day ; for in the day-
time there is no burglary. In considering
what is reckoned night, the day was an-
ciently accounted to begin at sun-rising1,
and to end immediately upon sun-set: but
the better opinion seems to be,thatif t here
be daylight or twilight sufficient begun or
left for discerning a man's face, it is no
burglary. But this does not extend to
moon-light: for then many midnight burg-
laries would go unpunished; and besides,
the malignity of the offence does not so
properly arise from its being done in
the dark, as at the dead of night, when
the whole creation, exceptbeasts of prey,
is at rest ; when sleep has disarmed the
owner, and rendered his castle defence-
less 2. As to the place. It must be, by
the definition, a mansion-house ; and,
therefore, in order to account for the
reason why breaking open a church is
burglary, as it undoubtedly is. Sir Edward
Coke quaintly observes, that it is " donuis
mansionalis Dei." But it is not necessa-
ry that it should in all cases be a mansion-
house; for it may he committed by break-
ing the gates or walls of a town in the
night. 3. As TO the manner of commit-
ting1 burglary ; there must be both a
breaking and an entry, to complete this
offence. But they need not be done at
once: for if a hole be broken one night,
am< the same breakers enter the next
night through the same, they are burglars.
There must in general be an actual break-
ing, so that it may be regarded as a sub-

stantial and forcible irruption. Such are,
break;ng or taking out the glass of, or
otherwise opening a window, and taking
out goods ; picking a lock, or opening it
with a key ; and lifting up the latch of a
door, or loosing any other fastenings
which the owner has provided. But if a
person leaves his doors or windows of his
house open, and a man enters by them, or
with a hook or by any other means draws
out some of the goods of the owner, it
is no burglary; but if, having entered, he
afterwards unlocks an inner or chamber
door, or if he comes down a chimney, he
is deemed a burglar. If a person enters by
the open door of a house,and breaks open
a chest and steals goods, this is no bur-
glary, by the common law, because the
chest is no part of the house. 4. As to
the intent: it is clear that such breaking
and entry must be with a felonious intent,
otherwise it is only a trespass. And it is
the same, whether such intention be ac-
tually carried into execution, or only de-
monstrated by some attempt or overt act,
of which the jury is to judge.

BURGOMASTER,the chief magistrate
of the great towns in Flanders, Holland,
and Germany. The power and jurisdic-
tion of the burgomaster is not the same
in all places, every town having its parti-
cular customs and regulations • at Am-
sterdam there are four, chosen by the
voices of all those people in the Senate
who have either been burgomasters or
echevins. Their authority resembles that
of the lord-mayor and aldermen ; they
dispose of all under offices that fall in
their time, keep the key of the bank, and
enjoy a salary but of *500 guilders, all
feasts, public entertainments, &c. being
defrayed out of the common treasury.

BURGUNDY pitch, in medicine, the
juice of the pinus abies, boiled in water,
and strained through a linen cloth. It
is chief!} emplo\ ed for external purposes
in inveterate coughs, &c. Plasters of this
resin, by acting as topical stimulants, are
frequently found of considerable service

BURIAL, the interment of a deceased
person. The rites of burial make the
greatest and most necessary care, being
looked upon in all countries, and at all
times, as a debt so sacred, that such as
neglected to discharge it were thought
accursed: hence the Romans called them
justa,and the Greeks vo/H.in,cc,}oca,ioc)oFix:>
&.c. words implying the inviolable obliga-
tions which nature has laid upon the liv-
ing, to take care of the obsequies of the
dead. Nor are we to wonder that the an-
cient Greeks and Romans were extrerru

BUR

UCIl

Iy solicitous about the interment of their
deceased friends,since they were strongly
persuaded that their souls could not be
admitted into the Elysian fields till their
bodies were committed to the earth ; and
if it happened that they never obtained
the rites of burial, they were excluded
from the happy mansions for the term of
an hundred years. For this reason it
was considered as a duty incumbent upon
all travellers, who should meet with a
dead body in their way, to cast dust or
mould upon it three times, and of these
three handfuls one at least was cast upon
the head. The ancients likewise consider-
ed it as a great misfortune, if they were
not laid in the sepulchres of their fathers;
for which reason, such as died in foreign
countries had usually their ashes brought
home, and interred with those of their
ancestors. But, notwithstanding their
great care in the burial of the dead,there
were some persons whotn they thought
unworthy of that last office, and to whom
therefore they refused it : such were,
1. Public or private enemies. 2. Such as
betrayed or conspired against their coun-
try. 3. Tyrants, who were always looked
upon as enemies to their country 4.
Villains guilty of sacrilege. 5. Such as
died in debt, whose bodies belonged to
their creditors. And 6. Some particu-
lar offenders, who suffered capital pun-
ishment. '

Of those who were allowed the rites of
burial, some were distinguished by par-
ticular circumstances of disgrace attend-
ing their interment : thus persons killed
by lightning were buried apart by them-
selves, being thought odious to the gods;
those who wasted their patrimony forfeit-
ed the right of being buried in the sepul-
chres of their fathers ; and those who
were guilty of self-murder were privately
deposited in the ground, without the ac-
customed solemnities. Among the Jews,
the privilege of burial was denied only to
self-murderers, who were thrown out
to rot upon the ground. In the Christian
church, though good men always desired
the privilege of interment, yet they were
not,' like the heathens, so concerned for
their bodies, as to think it any detriment
to them, if either the barbarity oCunene-
niy, or some other accident, deprived
them of this privilege. The primitive
Christian church denied the more solemn
rites of burial only to unbaptised persons,
self-murderers, and excommunicated per-
sons,whocontinuedobstinate and impeni-
tent, in a manifest contempt of the
Church's censures.

The place of burial among the Jew-}
was never particularly determined. \Ve
find they had graves in the town and
country, upon the highways, in gardens,
and upon mountains. Among the Greeks,
the temples were made repositories for
the dead in the primitive ages, yet the
general custom in later ages with them,
as well as with the Romans and other
heathen nations, was, to bury their dead
without their cities, and cniefiy by die.
highways. Among the primitive Chris-
tians, burying in cities was not allowed
for the first three hundred years, nor in
ci lurches for many ages after, the dead
bodies being first deposited in the atrium
or church-yard, and porches and porticos
of the church: hereditary burymg-piaces
were forbidden till the twelfth century.

BLBIALS, in law, persons are to be buri-
ed in woollen,or their representatives shall
forfeit 5/. and affidavit is to be made there-
of before a justice, under a like penalty.

BURIALS, as practised by the military,
differ in some respects according to the
rank of the deceased The funeral ot a
field-marshal is saluted with three rounds
of fifteen pieces of cannon attended by six
battalions and eight squadrons : that of a
general with three rounds of eleven pieces
of cannon, four battalions and six squad-
rons : and so on, decreasing in honour,
till tn at of a private, which >s attended by
one serjeant, and thirteen rank and file,
with three rounds of small arms. The
pall is to be supported by officers of the
same rank with that of the deceased. The
order of march to be observed in military
funerals is reversed with respect to rank.
Tor instance, if an officer is buried in a
garrison-town, or from a camp, it is cus-
tomary for the officers belonging to the
other corps to pay his remains the com-
pliment of attendance . in winch case the
youngest ensign marches at the head, im-
mediately after the pall, and the general,
if there be one, in the rear of the com-
missioned officers, who take their posts in
reversed order, according to seniority.
The battalion, troop, or company, follow
the same rule.

B I/RLE SQUE, a jocose kind of poetry,
chiefly used in the way of drollery and
ridicule, to deride persons and things.

BURMANMA, in botany, so named,
in honour of John Burgmann ; a genu> of
the i'exandriaMonogy ma class and order.
Natural order of Liliaceous Flowers. Co-
ronariae, Linnaeus. Bromelix, Jussieu. Es-
sential character ; calyx prismatic colour-
ed, trifid; angles membranous; peials
three; capsule three celled,straight; seeds

BLR

BUli

minute. There are but two species ; of
which B. disticha has the root composed
wholly of capillary fibres, very small. The
plant 'has the appearance of an antheri-
cum ; root-leaves six, grass-like, or ensi-
form, two inches long1, quite entire ; stem
upright, simple, a span and a half in height,
having six or seven small alternate leaves
an inch long; two equal divaricating
spikes, each composed of about nine flow-
ers, terminate the stem ; the flowers are
sessile, in a single row ; they are blue,
very elegant, and do not fall off'. It is a na-
tive of Ceylon. B. biflora, has strong
fibrous roots, with several oblong oval
leaves arising from it, which are smooth
and entire, four or five inches long; among
these springs the flower stem, six or eight
niches high, terminating by blue flowers,
growing together in each sheath. It is a
native of Virginia and Carolina.

BURN, in medicine and surgery, an in-
jury received in any part of the body, in
consequence of the application of too
great heat. See SURGERY.

BURNING-j-fcws, a convex or concave
glass, commonly spherical, which, being
exposed directly to the sun, collects all
the rays falling thereon into a very small
space called the focus; where wood, or
any other combustible matter, being put,
will be set on fire. See OPTICS

We have some extraordinary instances
and surprizing accounts of prodigious ef-
fects of burning-glasses. Those made of
reflecting mirrours are more powerful
than those made with lenses, because the
rays from a mirrour are reflected all to
one point nearly; whereas, by a lens, they
are refracted to different points, and
are therefore not so dense or ardent. The
whiter also the metal or substance is, of
which the mirrour is made, the stronger
will be the effect.

The most remarkable burning-glasses,
or rather mirrours, among the ancients,
were those of Archimedes and Proclus ;
by the first of which the Roman ships, be-
sieging Syracuse, according to the testi-
mony of several writers and by the other,
the navy of Vitalian,besieging Byzantium,
were reduced to ashes. Among the mo-
derns, the burning mirrours of greatest
eminence are, those of Villette and
Tschirnhausen, and the new complex
one of M de Buffbn.

That of M. de Villette was three feet
eleven inches in diameter, and its focal
distance was three feet two inches. Its
substance is a composition of tin, copper,
and tin-glass. Some of its effects, as found
bv Dr. Harris and Dr. Desaguliers, arc,

that a silver sixpence melted in 7£" ; a
King George's halfpenny melted in 16",
and ran in 34", tin melted in 3" and a
diamond, weighing 4 grains, lost seven-
eighths of its weight.

That of M. de Buffbn is a polyhedron,
six feet broad, and as many high, consist-
ing of 168 small mirrours, or flat pieces
of looking-glass, each six inches square;
by means of which, with the faint rays of
the sun in the month of March, he set on
fire boards of beech wood at 150 feet dis-
tance. Besides, his machine has the con-
veniency of burning downwards, or hori-
zontally, as one pleases, each speculum
being moveable, so as, by the means of
three screws, to be set to a proper incli-
nation for directing the rays towards any
given point : and ic turns either in its
greater focus, or in any nearer interval,
which our common burning-glasses can-
not do, their focus being fixed and deter-
mined. M. de Buffbn, at another time,
burnt wood at the distance of 200 feet.
He also melted tin and lead at the dis-
tance of above 120 feet, and silver at 50.

Mr. Parker, of Fleet-street, London,
was induced, at an expense of upwards of
700/. to contrive, and at length to com-
plete a large transparent lens, that would
serve the purpose of fusing and vitrifying
such substances as resist the fires of or-
dinary furnaces, and more especially of
applying heat in vacuo, and in other cir-
cumstances, in which it cannot be applied
by any other means. After directing his
attention for several years to this object,
and performing a great variety of experi-
ments in the prosecution of it, he at last
succeeded in the construction of a lens, of
flint-glass, three feet in diameter, which,
when fixed in its frame, exposes a sur-
face two feet 8^ inches in the clear, with-
out any 'other material imperfection be-
sides a disfigurement of one of the edges
by a piece of the scoria of the mould,
which unfortunately found its way into
its substance. This lens was double con-
vex, both sides of which were a portion
of a sphere of 18 feet radius It is diffi-
cult to form an accurate estimate of the
burning power of this lens ; inasmuch as
it is next to impossible to discover what
should be deducted for the loss of power,
in consequence of the impediments that
the glass 'of which it was made must oc-
casion, as well as the four reflections, and
two more by way of diminution ; but we
will endeavour to appreciate it, after mak-
ing a full allowance for these deductions,
which must necessarily result from every
means of concentrating the solar rays,

BURNING-GLASS.

and which must be considered to be as
the friction of an engine, of which nature
they really partake. The solar rays re-
ceived on a circular surface of 2 feet 8^
inches, when concentrated within the di-
ameter of an inch, will be 1056.25 times
its intensity, or this number of times
greater than the heat of the sun, as felt on
the surface of the earth. We will suppose
that, as the heat oi the air, in ordinary
summer weather, is 65°, and in sultry
weather is 75°, the average of which is
70°, and that we take this degree as the
average effect, the accumulated power of
the lens, on the supposition of an equal
effect over the whole surface of the focus,
will be equal to 73938°.

It must be recollected by those who
have had an opportunity of examining the
effects of this lens, that the external part
of the focal light was less intense than
that part which was near the centre of it;
or rather, that the effect was very much
accumulated in the centre but as it is
possible that the refraction of the light
and of the caloric fluid may not take place
in the same angles, we think it safest to
consider it as of an uniform effect, and
after deducting1 one-fourth part thereof
as a compensation, there remains 55454°,
as the expression of its power. As the
application of the second lens reduced
the diameter of the focus to half an inch,
the effect, without allowing for the reduc-
tion of its power, would be equal to
221816°, but deducting one-fourth for
the second transmission, there remains
166362°, as the expression of its power.

Mr. Parker farther informs us that a
diamond, weighing 10 grains, exposed to
th'S lens for X) minutes, was reduced to
6 grains ; during which operation it open-
ed, and foliated like the leaves of aflower,
and emitted whitish fumes, and when
closed again it bore a polish, and retained
its form. Gold remained in its metallic
state without apparent diminution, not-
withstanding an exposure at intervals of
many hours : but what is remarkable, the
rest, or cupel, which was composed of
bone-ash, was tinctured with a beautiful
pink colour.

The experiments on platina evince that
th<- specimens were in different states of
approach to a complete metallic form ;
several of them threw off their parts in
sparks, which, in most instances, were
metallic. Copper, after three minutes
exposure, was not found to have lost in
weight.

What is remarkable with regard to ex-
periments on iron is, that the lower part,

i. e. that part in contact with the charcoal,
was first melted, when that part which
was exposed to the focus remained un-
fused : an evidence of the effect of flux
on this metal.

Several of the semi-crystalline substan-
ces, exposed to the tocal heat, exhibited
symptoms of fusion: such as the agate,
oriental flint, cornelian, and jasper; '>ut
as the probability is that these substances
were not capable of complete vitrification,
it <s enough that they were rendered ex-
ternally of a glassy form. Garnei com-
?)evely fused on black-lead, in 12 /' lost
th of a grain, became darker in colour,
and was attracted by the magnet. Ten
cut garnets, taken from a bracelet, began
to run the one into the other in a few se-
conds, and at last formed into one globu*
lar garnet. The clay used by Mr. Wedg-
wood to make his pyrometric test run in
a few seconds into a white enamel. Seven
other kinds of clay sent by Mr. Wedg-
wood were all vitrified. Several experi-
ments were made on lime-stone, some of
which were vitrified, but all of which were
agglutinated ; it is, however, suspected
that some extraneous substance must
have been intermixed. A globule pro-
duced from one of the specimens, on
being put into the mouth, flew into a
thousand pieces, occasioned, it is presum-
ed, by the moisture.

Some experiments were made in the
year 1802, with Mr. Parker's lens, with
the view of ascertaining whetherthe moon
communicated any heat to the earth, in
common with the reflected light from
which we derive so much advantage.
This experiment was attended by Sir Jo-
seph Banks, with several members of the
Royal Society, together with Dr. Craw-
ford, who provided the most sensible
thermometers ; but after applying them
to the luminous focus, so far from a
perceptible increase of heat, it was
thought there was perceived rather a di-
minution thereof; but this suspicion did
not lead them to a fair investigation of
the fact. Since this period some experi-
ments have been made, that evince the
power of communicating cold by reflec-
tion ; but as this fact has not yet been ex-
plained consistently with the present re-
ceived theory, we shall content ourselves
withtakingnotice of the experiment made
by M. Pictet. Two concave mirrors being
placed at the distance of 10£ feet from
each other, a very delicate air thermome-
ter was put into one of the foci, and a
glass matrass full of snow in the other.
The thermometer sunk several degrees.

BUR

and rose again when the matrass was re-
moved. When nitric acid was poured
upon the snow (which increased the
cold) the thermometer sunk 5° or 6°
lower. Here cold seems to have been
emitted by the snow, and reflected by
the mirrors to the thermometer, which
it is thought could not happen unless
cold were a substance. It has been found,
that upon an admixture of equal quanti-
ties of snow, which is always at 32°, and
of water heated to 172°, the result is, that
the compound only retains the lowest
heat of 32°, so that 140° of heat or calo-
ric disappears. Much has been said re-
specting the point or degree at which the
thermometer should indicate the pre-
sence of heat. The experiments of Dr.
Crawford seem to place it at 1268° below
the present 0 ; Mr. Kirwan places it at
1048°; Messrs. Lavoisier and La Place at
2736° ; and by a mixture of four parts of
sulphuric acid with three pints of water,
it seems that it should be placed at 5803°
below 0. Experiments of this kind may
be made ad infinttum, and in time it may
possibly be ascertained that cold is a real
substance ; but for the purpose of get-
ting an answer to the present question,
we will accommodate the scale of Fah-
renheit, by adding 108° thereto, so as to
make the 0 correspond with the caloric
imbibed by snow or ice before it can
melt.

The superficies of spherical bodies are
to each other as the squares of their re-
spective diameters. The diameter of the
moon is considered to be 2180 miles, and
its mean distance from the earth 240,000 ;
from which it follows, on the supposition
that all the solar rays received by the
moon were reflected back, and that the
earth was absolutely without heat, that
the effect of this reflection would be
found to be .00367 of a degree (for
240,000X2": 178° :: 2180° : .00367); which
multiplied into 1056.25, and this sum in-
creased four times for the increased power
of the second lens, would give 15.51234°
as the heat of the focus; 98.28766° be-
low the present 0, or 124.28766° below
the freezing point. This dissertation is
interesting in another point of view, for
this calculation ascertains that the light
afforded by the moon, when compared
with that by the sun, abstracting all im-
pediments in both cases, is only as 1 to
48480.

A subscription was proposed for raising
the sum of 700 guineas towards indemni-
fying the charges of the inventor, and re-
taining the very curious and useful ma-
chine above described in our own coun-

try ; but from the failure of the subscrip-
tion, and some other concurring circum-
stances, Mr. Parker was induced to dis-
pose of it to Capt. Mackintosh, \vlio ac-
companied Lord Macartney in the embas-
sy to China; and it was left, much to the
regret of philosophers in Europe, at Pe-
kin; where it remains in the hands of
persons, who most probably know neither
its value nor use.

BtrnNiire-mOTwitam*, the same with vol-
canoes. See VOLCANO.

BURNISHER, a round polished piece
of steel, serving to smooth and give a lus-
tre to metals.

Of these there are different kinds, of
different figures, straight, crooked, Sec.
Half burnishers are used to solder silver,
as well as to give a lustre.

BURNISHING, the art of smoothingor
polishing a metalline body by a brisk rub-
bing of it with a burnisher.

Book -binders burnish the edges of
their books by rubbing them with a dog's
tooth. Gold and silver are burnished by
rubbing them with a wolf's tooth, or by
the bloody stone, or by tripoli, a piece of
white wood, emery, and the like. Dest
are said to burnish their heads by rub-
bing off a downy white skin from their
horns against a tree.

BURR pump, or BILDGK pump, differs
from the common pump in having a staff
6, 7, or 8 feet long, with a bar of wood,
whereto the leather is nailed, and this
serves instead of a box. So two men.
standing over the pump thrust down this
staff, to the middle whereof is fastened a
rope for 6, 8, or 10 to hale by, thus pull-
ing it up and down.

BURSARIA, in natural history, a genus
of worms of the order Infusoria. Worm
very simple, membranaceous, hollow-
There are three species, viz. the trunca-
tella, hirundinella, and duplella, found in
marshy water : the first has a white body,
oval, with a large hollow descending to
the base, with sometimes four or five
eggs at the bottom : the second is a pel-
lucid hollow membrane, moving forwards
like a bird in flight ; the third is found
among duck-weed, without visible in-
testines.

BURSARS, in the Scotch universities,
are youths chosen as exhibitioners, and
maintained for the space of four years at
the rate of 100^. per ami. Scots.

BURSE, in a commercial sense, a place
for merchants to meet in and negociate
their business publicly, with us called ex-
change.

BURSERA, in botany, so called in ho-
nour of Joachim Burser, a genus of the

BUS

BUT

Polygamia Dioecia. Essential character:
Herm. calyx three-leaved ; corolla three-
peialled; capsule fleshy, three valved,
one-seeded. Male, calvx five-toothed ;
corolla five-petalled; stamina ten. There
is but one species, viz B gummifera, Ja-
maica birch tree is very lofty, with an
upright, round, smooth trunk, covered
with a livid shining1 bark, peeling1 off in
round pieces, like the European birch ;
branches terminating, smooth, horizon-
tal ; flowers small and white ; capsule
red, resembling1 a drupe. On the male
tre<-s the flowers are more copious, and
crowded in the racemes, but are scarcely
larger. This tree is common in all the
su^-ar islands of the West Indies. The
bark is very thick, and exudes a clear
transparent resin,which soon hardens in
the air tt flowers from May to July.
With iis it has not flowered, although it
has been cultivated since the year 1690.

BUSH, burning, that bush wherein the
Lord appeared to Moses at the foot of
Mo<mt Horeb, as he was feeding his fa-
ther-in-law's flocks. As to the person that
appeared it the bush, the scripture, in
several places, calls him by the name of
God r he says of himself, " that he is the
Lord, the God who is the God of Abra-
ham, Isaac, and Jacob, &c." And Moses,
blessing Joseph, says, "let the blessing
of him that dwelt Hi the bush come upon
the head of Joseph." But the Hebrew
and the Greek septuagint import that the
ange7 of the Lord appeared to him. St.
Stephen, and several others, read it in
the same manner; and, moreover, some
say that is was an angel that represented
the Lord : yet there are persons who hold
the Son of God to be the person that ap-
peared in the bush.

The Mahometans believe that one of
Moses's shoes, put off by him as he drew
near the burning-bush, was placed in the
ark of the covenant, in order to preserve
the memory of this miracle.

BUSHEL, a measure of capacity for
dry things, as grain, fruits, dry pulse, &c.
containing four pecks, or eight gallons,
or one-eighth of a quarter.

A bushel, by 12 Henry VII. c. 5, is to
contain eight gallons of wheat ; the gal-
lon eight pounds of troy weight ; the
ounce twenty sterlings ; and the sterling
thirty-two grains, or corns of wheat grow-
ing in the midst of the ear. See MEASURE
and WEIGHT.

BUSKTN, a kind of shoe, somewhat in
manner of a boot, and adapted to either
foot, and worn by either sex.

This part of dress, covering both the
foot and mid-leg1, was tied underneath the

knee; it was very rich and fine, an<£
principally used on the stage by actors in
tragedy. It was of a quadrangular form,
and the sole was so thick, as that by
means thereof men of the ordinary stature
might be raised to the pitch and elevation
of the heroes they personated. The co-
lour was generally purple on the stage :
herein it. was distinguished from the sock
worn in comedy, that being only a low
common shoe. The buskin seems to
have been worn not only by actors, but
by girls, to raise their height ; travellers
and hunters also made use of it, to de-
fend themselves from the mire.

In classic authors we frequently find
the buskin used to signify tragedy itself,
because it was a mark of tragedy on the
stage.

It is also sometimes understood for a
lofty strain, or high style.

BUSS, in maritime affairs, a small sea
vessel, used by us and the Dutch in the
herring fishery, commonly from forty-
eight to sixty tons burden, and sometimes
more : a buss has two small sheds or ca-
bins, one at the prow, and the other at
the stern ; that at the prow serves for a
kitchen. Every buss has a master, an
assistant, a mate, and seamen in propor-
tion to the vessel's bigness ; the master
commands in chief, and without his ex-
press order the nets cannot be cast nor
taken up ; the assistant has the command
after him ; and the mate next; whose bu-
siness is to see the seamen manage their
rigging in a proper manner, to mind
those who draw in their nets, and those
who kill, gut, and cure the herrings, as
they are taken out of the sea. The sea-
men generally engage for a whole voy-
age in the lump. The provisions which
they take on board the busses consist,
commonly, in biscuit, oatmeal, and dried
or salt fish ; the crew being content for
the rest with what fresh fish they catch.

BUST, or BUSTO, in sculpture, &c. a
term used for the figure or portrait of a
person in relievo, shewing only the head,
shoulders, and stomach, the arms being
lopped off: it is usually placed on a pe-
destal or console. The burst is the same
with what the Latins called herma, from
the Greek Hermes, Mercury, the image of
that god being frequently represented in
that manner by the Athenians.

BXTST, communicative. See ACCOTTSTICS.

BUSTARD, in ornithology. See OTIS.

BUTCHER, a person who slaughters
cattle for the use of the table, or who cuts
up and retails the same. Among the an-
cient Romans there were three kinds of
established butchers, whose office was, t<*

BtJT

BUT

furnish the city with the necessary cattle,
and to take care of preparing- and t nding
their flesh. The suarii provided hogs ;
the pecuarii, or boarii, other cattle, espe-
cially oxen ; and under these was a subor-
dinate class, whose office was to kill, call-
ed lanii, and carnifices.

To exercise the office of butcher
among- the Jews, with dexterity, was of
more reputation than to understand the
liberal arts and sciences. They have a
book concerning shamble-constitution ;
and in case of any difficulty, they apply
to some learned Rabbi for advice : nor
was any allowed to practise this art with-
out a licence in form ; which gave the
«ian, upon evidence of his abilities, a
power to kill meat, and others to eat
what he killed ; provided he carefully
read every week for one year, and every
month the next year, and once a quarter
during his life, the constitution above
mentioned.

In London, the furnishing of butcher's
meat is separated into different trades.
We have carcass-butchers, who kill the
meat in great quantities, and sell it to
others, who retail it among their custom-
ers. Besides these there are salesmen,
who attend the market at Smithfield,
and who act between the carcass butcher
and the breeder and feeder of cattle in
the country. The butchers were incor-
porated into a company in the third year
of James I.

BUTCHER bird, in ornithology. See LA-
xius.

BUTCHER'S broom, in botany. See Rus-
cus.

BUTEA, in botany, a genus of the
Diadelphia Decandria class and order.
Calyx slightly two-lipped ; corolla with
a very long lanceolate banner : legume
compressed, membranaceous ; one-seed-
ed at the tip. Two species ; viz. Fron-
dosa and Superba, found on the coast of
Coromandel.

BUTLER, the name anciently given to
an officer in the court of France, being
the same as the grand echanson, or great
cup-bearer of the present times.

BUTLER, in the common acceptation of
the word, is an officer in the houses of
princes and yreat men, whose principal
business is to look after the wine, plate,
&c.

BUTLERAGE oficine, is a duty of two
shillings for every ton of wine imported
by merchants strangers ; being a compo-
sition in lieu of the liberties and free-
doms granted to them by kin John and
Edward I. by a charter called chartamer-
•catoria. Butlerage was originally the only

custom that was payable upon the im-
portation of wines, and was taken and re-
ceived by virtue of the regal prerogative,
for the proper use of the crown. But for
many years past, there having been grant-
ed by" parliament subsidies to the kings
of England, and the duty of butlerage not
repealed, but confirmed, they have been
pleased to grant away to some nobleman,
who, by virtue of such grant, is to enjoy
the full benefit and advantage thereof,
and may cause the same to be collected
in the same manner that the kings them-
selves were formerly wont to do. The
name was derived from the circumstance
of the duty being formerly paid to the
king's butler.

BUTMENTS, in architecture, a mass
of stone or brick-work, on or against
which the feet of arches rest.

BUTT, in commerce, a vessel or mea-
sure of wine, containing four hogsheads,
or two hundred and fifty-two gallons.

BUTT, or BUTT -ends, in the sea-lan-
guage, are the fore-ends of all planks un-
der water, as' they rise, and are joined
one end to another. Butt-ends in great
ships are most carefully bolted; for if
any one of them should spring or give
way, the leak would be very dangerous
and difficult to stop.

BUTTER, a fat unctuous substance,
prepared from milk, by heating or churn-
ing it. It was late before the Greeks
appear to have had any notion of butter ;
their poets make no mention of it, and
yet are frequently speaking of milk and
cheese. The Romans used butter no
otherwise than as a medicine, never as a
food. The ancient Christians of Egypt
burnt butter in their lamps instead of oil ;
and in the Roman churches it was an-
ciently allowed during Christmas time, to
burn butter instead of oil, on account of
the great consumption of it otherways.
See MILK.

BUTTER, is a name given in the old che-
mistry to several metallic muriates, on
account of their texture when newly pre-
pared. According to this system, there
are the butters of antimony, arsenic, bis-
muth, and tm. They all agree in the fol-
lowing particulars : they are formed by
sublimation ; their texture is no> unlike
that of butter in warm weather ; they are
decomposable by being dropped into
pure water, a precipitation of white ox-
ide taking place. There are likewise ve-
getable butters, a term ap, lied to those
vegetable expressed oils, that require a
greater heat than that of the atmosphere
to keep the mm a fluid slate: of these, the
palm oil is best known : a sinuiar oil may

BUT

be obtained from the cocoa nut ; and the
celebrated Parke found in Africa a tree,
called by the natives shea, from the fruit
of which a tolerably pure butter was ob-
tained.

BuTTER~7ra7fr, a kind of serum that re-
mains behind, after the butter is made.

BUTTERFLY, the English name of a
numerous genus of insects, called by zoo-
logists papilio. See PAPILIO.

BUTTERY, a room in the houses of
noblemen and gentlemen belonging to
the butler, where he deposits the uten-
sils belonging to his office, as table linnen,
napkins, pots, tankards, glasses, cruets,
salvers, spoons, knives, forks, pepper,
mustard, &c.

BUTTNERIA, in botany, so named
from David Sigismunda Augustus Butt-
ner : a genus of the Pentandria Monogy-
nia class and order. Natural order of
Columniferse. Malvaceae, Jussieu. Es-
sential diameter : corolla five-petalled ;
filaments at the top connate with the pe-
tals ; capsule five-grained, muricate.
There are three species; viz. B. scabra,
is a pernenial plant, from three to five
feet high, with alternate, long, angular
branches, armed with cartilagi nous pric-
kles ; at the axils of the leaves, stem and
branches, the flowers are produced sin-
gly on short peduncles : it is found at
Cayenne. B. earth aginensis is a shrub,
branching and spreading on every side, in
manner of the common bramble ; ra-
cemes short, aggregate, and axillary on the
young branches ; flowers without smell,
white, and very numerous : native of
Carthagena and St. Domingo ; flowering
in September and October: and B.
microphylla differs but little from the
foregoing, in having the trunk and
branches larger and round, the pedun-
cles one-flowered, and the corolla pur-
ple and white, variegated : it was found
in the island of St. Domingo by Jacquin,
and brought into Europe.

BUTTOCK of a ship, is that part of her
which is her breadth right a-stern, from
the tack upwards ; and a ship is said to
have a broad or a narrow buttock, ac-
cording as she is built broad or narrow at
the transum.

BUTTOMUS, in botany, a genus of the
Enneandria Hexagynia. Natural order of
Tripetaloideze. June), Jussieu. One of
the connecting links between lilies and
rushes. Essential character : calyx none ;
petals six ; capsule six, many-seeded.
There is but one species ; viz. B. umbel-
hitus, flowering rush or gladiole, has a
perennial root ; leaves ensiform, long,
triangular, smooth, quite entire, spongy,

at bottom sheathing, at top flat and twist-
ed ; flowers to thirty, each on a single,
round, smooth peduncle, from an inch to
about a finger's length, forming an up-
right umbel, surrounded at bottom by an
involucre of three withering membranous
sheaths, besides a smaller stipule to each
peduncle; corolla very handsome and
large, of a bright flesh colour ; filaments
placed on a regular circle on the recepta-
cle ; the pollen is of a bright yellow co-
lour, germ nearly triangular. This is the
only plant of the class Enneandria which
grows wild in Britain.

BUTTON, an article of dress, serving
to fasten clothes tight about the bodjr,
made of metal, silk, mohair. &c. in va*
rious forms. Metal buttons are either
cast in moulds, in the manner of other
small works, or made of thin plates of
gold, silver, or brass, whose structure is
very ingenious.

Of the manufacture of metal buttons.
These are originally formed in two differ-
ent ways ; the blanks are either pierced
out of a large sheet of metal with a punch
driven by a fly-press, or cast in a pair of
flasks of moderate size, containing 10 or
12 dozen each. In this latter case, the
shanks are previously fixed in [the sand,
exactly in the centre of the impression
formed by each pattern, so as to have
their extremities immersed in the melt-
ed metal when poured into the flask, by
which means they are consequently firm-
ly fixed in the button when cooled. The
former process is generally used for yel-
low buttons, and the latter for those of
white metal. We shall first give an in-
stance of the former mode of procedure,
as used in the manufacture of gilt but-
tons. The gilding metal is an alloy of
copper and zinc, containing a smaller pro-
portion of the latter than ordinary brass,
and is made either by fusing together the
copper and zinc, or by fusing brass with
the requisite additional proportion of cop-
per. This metal is first rolled into sheets
of the intended thickness of the button,
and the blanks are then pierced out as be-
fore mentioned. The blanks thus formed
are, when intended for plain buttonSj usu-
ally planished by a smgle stroke of a plain
die driven by the some engine, the fly-
press; when for ornamental buttons, the fi-
gure is also frequently struck in like man-
ner by an appropriate die, though there
are others which are ornamented by hand.
The shanks, which are made withjwonder-
ful facility and expedition by means of a
very curious engine, are then temporarily
attached to the bottom of each button by

BUTTON.

a wire clamp like a pair of sugar tongs,
and a small quantity of solder and resin
applied to each. They are in this state
exposed to heat on an iron plate, contain-
ing about a gross, till the solder runs,
and the shank becomes fixed to the but-
ton, after which they are put singly in a
lathe, and their edges turned off smooth-
ly. The surface of the metal, which has
become in a small degree oxydated by
the action of the heat in soldering, is next
to be cleaned, which in this, as in a great
variety of other instances in the manufac-
ture of metallic articles, is effected by
the process of dipping or pickling; that is,
some dozens of them are put into an ear-
then vessel, pierced full of holes like a
cullender; the whole dipped into a vessel
of diluted nitric acid, suffered to drain
for a few seconds, again dipped succes-
sively into four or five other vessels of
pure water, and then dried.

The nextoperation is the roughburnish-
ing, which is performed by fixing the but-
tons in the lathe., and applying a burnish-
er of hard black stone from Derbyshire :
the minute pores occasioned by the suc-
cessive action of the heat and the acid are
thus closed, and the subsequent process
of gilding considerably improved, both
with regard to economy and perfection.
The first step towards the gilding of all
the alloys of copper consists in covering
the surface uniformly with a thin stratum
of mercury, by which means the amalgam,
which is afterwards applied, attaches it-
self to it much more readily than it would
otherwise do. This part of the process is
called quicking,and is effected by stirring
the buttons about with a brush, in a vessel
containing a quantity of nitric acid super-
saturated with mercury, which latter is,
of course, by the superior elective attrac-
tionot the copper for the acid,precipitated
in its metallic state on the bottoms, whose
surfaces become uniformly and brilliantly
covered with it. The mercury, which
hangs in loose drops on the buttons, is
then shaken off, by jerking the whole
violently, in a kind of earthen cullender
made for the purpose, and they are then
ready for receiving the amalgam. The
amalgam is made by heating a quantity
of grain gold with mercury in an iron ladle;
by which means the former is soon dis-
solved, and the whole is then poured into
a vessel of cold water. The superabun-
dant mercury is strongly pressed out
through a piece of chamois leather, and
the remaining amalgam, which is of about
the consistence of butter, is then fit for
application. This is performed by stirring

the buttons, whose surfaces are already
thinly covered or wetted with mercury,
in an earthen vessel, with the requisite
proportion of amalgam and a small quan-
tity of diluted nitric acid, by which means
the amalgam also attaches itself to their
surfaces with a considerable degree of
equality. The necessary quantity of gold
is about five grains to a gross of buttons
of an inch in diameter.

The next process is the volatilization of
the mercury by heat, which is usually
called by the workmen drying off. This
is formed by first heating the buttons
in an iron pan, somewhat like a large fry-
ing-pan, till the amalgam with which they
are covered becomes fluid, and seems
disposed to run into drops, on which they
are thrown into a large felt cap, called a
gilding cap, made of coarse wool and
goat's hair, and stirred about with a brush,
to equalize the covering of the surface
by the gold. After this they are again
heated, again thrown into the gilding cap,
and stirred, and these operations succes-
sively repeated till the whole of the mer-
cury is volatilized. When the mercury is
volatilized from the buttons, or, as the
workmen denominate it, when the buttons
are dried off, they are finally burnished,
and are then finished and fit for carding.

The white metal buttons, which arc-
composed of brass, alloyed with different
proportions of tin, after having been cast as
before mentioned,arepolished,by turning
them in a lathe, and applying successively
several pieces of buffaloe skin glued on
wood,charged with powdered grindstone
and oil, rotten stone, and crocus martis.
Theyare then white-boiled,that is, boiled
with a quantity of grain tin in a solution of
crude red tartaj-jOr argol,and,lastly,finish-
ed with a buff with finely prepared crocus.

Glass buttons. These articles are also
frequently wholly composed of glass of va-
rious colours, in imitation of the opal,
lapis lazuli, and other stones. The glass
is in this case kept in fusion, and the but-
ton nipped out of it whilst in its plastic
state, by a pair of iron moulds like those
used for casting pistol shot, adapted to
the intended form of the button ; the
workmen previously inserting the shank
into the mould, so that it may become
imbedded in the glass when cold.

•Mother of pearl buttons. This substance
is also frequently used in the manufacture
of buttons: in which case, the mode of
fixing in the shank is somewhat ingenious.
It is done by drilling a hole at the back,
which is under-cut ; that is, larger at the
bottom than the top,like a mortise,anchhe

BUX

BYR

shank being driven in by a steady stroke,
its extremity expands on striking- against
the bottom of the hole, and it becomes
firmly rivetted into the button. To these
foil-stones are also frequently added, in
which case, they are usually attached with
isingiass-glue. Steel studs are also often
rivetted into buttons of this and various
other kinds.

The practice of wearing buttons con-
sisting merely of a mould covered with
the same kind of cloth as the garment
itself be;ng at present extremely general,
it may, perhaps, be proper to remark, that
this is prohibited on pain of pecuniary
penalties, from 40s. to 51. per dozen, by
several statutes, which have been made at
different times, for the promotion of this
manufacture,audunderwhich several con-
victionshavetaken place with inafewy ears.
BUTTRESS, a kind of butmtnt built
archwise, or a mass of stone or brick,
serving to support the sides of a building,
wall, &c on tlit outside, where it is either
very high, or has any considerable load to
sustain on the other side, as a bank of
earth, 8cc.

BUXBAUMIA, in botany, a kind of
moss, of which there are only two species.
Both are to be found in the dissertation
of the younger Linnaeus on mosses

BUXUS, in botany, a genus of the Mo-
noecia Telrandria class and order, Natu-
ral order of Tricoccx. Euphorbias. Jus-
sieu. Essential character: male calyx
three leaved; petals three ; styles three;
capsule three-beaked; three-celled; seeds
two. There is but one species ; viz. B.
sempervirens, box-tree, is well known in
its dwarf-state, and as a shrub about three
feet in length. The wood is of a yellow
colour, very hard and ponderous. It is
the only one of the European woods which
will sink in water. The leaves are ovate
in the common sort, hard, smooth, glossy,
evergreen, very dark gr.-en above, and
pale green underneath, like those of myr-
tle, but blunt and emarginate at the end;
from the axils of the leaves come out the
small herbaceous flowers, in round bun-
ches ; a female flower occupying the
middle of the bunch, being surrounded
by several males.

The female flower is succeeded by a
capsule of a globular form, very smooth,
shining, tricoccous, and before it opens
having three beaks, resembling a tripod;
the cocculi or grains are of the consistence
of paper, two-valved, and opening vvith
an elastic spring1 ; receptacle central,
three-sided, and short ; in each cell is a
pair of seeds, ovate, growing more slen-

der upwards ; triangular-compressed, ob-
liqnely truncate at the end, of a blackish
brown colour. The wood of the box-tree
sells at a very high price, by weight, be-
ing very hard and smooth, and not apt to
warp. It is a native of most parts of Eu-
rope, from Britain southwards.

BY-LAWS, or BTE-LAWS, private and
peculiar laws for the good government of
a city, court, or other community, made
by the general consent of the members.
All by-laws are to be reasonable, and for
the common benefit, not private advan-
tage of any particular persons, and must
be agreeable to the public laws in being.
If made by corporations, they are to be
approved by the Lord Chancellor or Chief
Justice, or justice of assize, on pain of
40/. if against the good of the public. But
it is said a corporation cannot make by-
laws without a custom for it, or the king's
charter : nor may they make any by-law
to bind strangers that live out of their
corporation, or to restrain a person from
working in or setting up his trade, though
it may be for the order and regulating of
trades ; and notwithstanding such a by-
law may inflict a reasonable penalty,
which may be recovered by distress or
action of debt, yet none can be imprison-
ed upon it, as it is contrary to Magna
Charts.

BYRLAW, or BURLAW, laws in Scot-
land, are made and determined by neigh-
bours elected by common consent in byr-
law courts. The men chosen as judges
are called byrlaw or burlaw-men, and take
cognizance of complaints between neigh-
bour and neighbour.

BYRRHUS, in natural history, a genus
of insects of the orderColeoptera: generic
character: antennae longer than the head,
clavate,the club perfoliate; feelers equal,
subclavate? jaw and lip bifid. There arc
about 12 species, found in different parts
of Europe. The B. scrophularia is a small
insect, of the size of the lady-bird ; its
colour is dark brown, clouded with bro-
ken or irregular white bands, and the
edges, constituting the line of division be-
tween the wing sheaths, are red. This
insect is found more frequently on the
plant called scrophularia aquatica than
elsewhere. B. pilula is a larger species,
equalling or rather exceeding the size of
the common lady-bird; it is of an extreme-
ly convex shape, and when disturbed
contracts its limbs, and lies in an inert
state, resembling the appearance of a
seed or pill. It is found on various plants,
and about garden grounds, Sec. The an-
tennse in this species are longer than in

CAA

CAB

others, and rather foliated than merely
knobbed

BYSSUS, in botany a genus of the
Cryptogamia Algae, and the last in the
scale of vegetation in that class. They ap-
pear in the form of threads, on rotten
wood, the bark of trees, rocks, and walls,
especially in damp cellars ; one sort is
common en wine casks ; at first is like
flakes of snow, but turns yellow ; in this
state it has black grains at the base like
gunpowder. The green paper byssus is
a farina, concreting on the surface of the
water, and forming a wide thin film.
There are many species, but the number
is doubtful.

BYSTROPOGON, in botany, a genus
of the Didynamia Gymnospermia class
and order. Natural order, Verticillatze.
Labiatze, Jussieu. Essential character:
calyx five-subulate, bearded at the open-

ing ; corolla, upper lip bifid ; covers tri-
fid ; stamens distant. There are seven
species, of which B. pectinatum, balm-
leaved bystropogon, has an herbaceous
stem, generally five or six feet high, leaves
petiolated, cordate, veined; spikes simple
or manifold; scarcely leafy; composed
of whorls; supported by several bristle-
shaped bractes, the length of the flow-
ers, which grow thick together, curiously
disposed on the smaller slips of the
branched tops ; they are whitish, and all
the parts very small ; the neck of the
calyx and filaments are commonly cover-
ed with down. The corolla is scarcely
larger than the calyx ; stamens the length
of the corolla, and distant; style purplish;
stigmas simple, seeds roundish, black
and glossy. This plant is a native of Ja-
maica. It is found in all the low lands
about Kingston and Spanish Town.

Cthe third letter, and second conso-
' nant of the alphabet, is formed by
forcing the breath between the tongue,
elevated near the palate (to make the
voice somewhat sibilous) with the lips
open. It has two sounds, hard and soft;
hard, like k, before a, u, o, 1, and r ; as
in call, cost, cup, clean, crop ; and soft,
like s before i, e, and y ; as in city, ces-
sion, cyder : before h it has a peculiar
sound, as in chance, chalk: in chord,
chart, and some other words, it is hard
like k : but in many French words, it is
soft before h, like s, as in chase, chagrin.

As a numeral, C signifies 100, CC 200,
&c.

C, in music, the highest part in the
thorough bass; again, a simple C, or
rather a semicircle, placed after the cliff,
intimates that the music is in common
time, which is either quick or slow, as it
is joined with allegro or adagio : if alone,
it is usually adagio.

If the C be crossed or turned, the first
requires the air to be played quick, and
the last very quick.

CAABA, or CAABAH, properly signi-
fies a square building ; but is particu-
larly applied by the Mahometans to the
temple of Mecca, built, as they pretend,

by Abraham, and Ishmael his son. It is
towards this temple they always turn their
faces when they pray, in whatever part ot
the world they happen to be.

This temple enjoys the privilege of an
asylum for all sorts of criminals ; but it is
most remarkable for the pilgrimages
made to it by the devout Musselmen,
who pay so great a veneration to it, that
they believe a single sight of its sacred
walls, without any particular act of devo-
tion, is as meritorious in the sight of God,
as the most careful discharge of one's
duty, for the space of a whole year, in any
other temple.

CAB, an Hebrew dry measure, equal to
two and five-sixths pints of our corn mea-
sure.

CABBAGK. See BJIASSICA,

CABBAGE free. See ARECA.
' CABBAGING, among gardeners, a
term used for the knitting of cabbages in-
to round heads.

CABBALA, properly signifies tradition,
and is the name of a mysterious kind of
science, thought to have been delivered
by revelation to the ancient Jews, and
transmitted by oral tradition to those of
our times ; serving for the interpretation
of the books both of nature and scripture.

CAB

«AB

The Cabbala is properly the oral law
of the Jews, delivered down by word of
mouth from father to son ; and it is to
these interpretations of the written law
that our Saviour's censure is to be appli-
ed, when he reproves the Jews for mak-
ing the commands of God of none effect,
through their traditions.

C ABBALISTS, the Jewish doctors,who
profess the study of the cabbala. In th«
opinion of these men, there is not a word,
letter, or accent in the law, without some
mystery in it. The Jews are divided into
two general sects ; the Karaites, who re-
fuse to receive either tradition or the tal-
mud, or any thing but the pure text of
scripture ; and the rabbinists, or talmud-
its, who, besides this, receive the tradi-
tions of the ancients, and follow the tal-
mud. The latter are again divided into
two other sects; pure rabbinists, who ex-
plain the scripture, in its natural sense,
by grammar, history, and tradition ; and
cabbalists, who, to discover hidden mysti-
cal senses, which they suppose God to
have couched therein, make use of the
cabbala, and the mystical methods above
mentioned.

CABECA, or CABESSE, a name given to
the finest silks in the East Indies.

CABIN, in the sea language, a small
room or apartment, whereof there are a
great many in several parts of a ship,
particularly on the quarter-deck, and on
each side of the steerage, for the officers
of the ship to lie in. The great cabin is
the chief of all, and that which properly
belongs to the captain or chief comman*
der.

CABINET, the most retired place in
the finest part of a building, set apart for
writing, studying, or preserving any thing
that is precious. A complete apartment
consists of a hall, anti-chamber, chamber,
and cabinet, with a gallery on one side.
Hence we say, a cabinet of paintings, cu-
riosities, &c.

CABIITET, in natural history. This term
is applied, with some latitude, to any small
or select collection of natural curiosities,
without regarding whether the articles it
comprises be contained within a cabinet
or not. Thus, for instance, it is not un-
frequent with us to speak of cabinets of
animals, cabinets of birds, offishes, rep-
tiles, and other similar articles, as a mode
of expressing such an assemblage of natu-
ral history, as may not be of sufficient im-
portance to deserve the epithet of a mu-
seum. The word cabinet, in its usual
acceptation with the naturalist, is not
therefore confined solely to the boxes,

press, or chest of drawers, in which arti-
cles of curiosity are contained, but im-
plies at once both the repository itself,
and the articles arranged in it.

Cabinets of fossils, shells, and corals,
have the drawers sometimes divided for
this purpose into small compartments, by
means of an inner frame work, that let«
into the bottom of the drawer; but trays
of various sizes, made either of card or
pasteboard, have a much neater appear-
ance, and are preferred by many, as being
more commodious, and more easily shift-
ed from one part of the drawer to another,
as the addition of new acquisitions in any
particular tribe or genus may require.
Nothing can be more desirable than to
have the cabinets well made, that the
drawers may slide with perfect ease in
their proper recesses in the press. The
drawers should fit so close, when shut
up, as to preclude the entrance of dust
of any kind. The cabinet itself should
be also placed in a dry situation, as
there are few articles of natural history
that are not affected in a greater or less
degree by an excess of damp, or even
heat. The drawers are uniformly made
shallow, the bottom of each is lined with
cork, and the top is covered with glass,
through which the insect may be seen,
without being exposed to the air, or
accidents that would arise from their
being touched by the incautious specta-
tor.

Cabinets for insects are built of vari-
ous sizes, from those which contain ten
or a dozen drawers to others that include
above a hundred. They are usually of
mahogany, but it is immaterial whether
they be made of mahogany or wainscot ;
some have them of cedar, bwt seldom of
deal, or any other wood of a soft texture.
The drawers may be from fifteen to thir-
ty inches in length, the same, or nearly
the same, in breadth, and about two or
three inches in depth. The cork with
which the bottoms are lined must be cho-
sen as free from cracks and holes as pos-
sible ; it should be ulso glued into the
drawers, to prevent its warping, and be
filed or cut very level ; and after this the
irregularities on the surface of the cork
should be rubbed down with pumice-
stone, till the whole is rendered perfect-
ly smooth, before the paper is pasted
over it. The paper should be of a fine
smooth and even grain, but neither very
stout nor highly stiffened with size, lest
it should turn the points of the pins,
when placing the insects in the drawers.
The top of every drawer must be cover-

CAB

CAC

fcd with a plate of glass, to prevent the
admission of dust or air. This plate is
usually fitted into a frame of the same
size as the drawer, and is made either to
slide in a groove, or let in on a rabbet ;
the latter contrivance is much the best,
because, in sliding the grass along the
groove, if any of the pins happen to stand
so high as to touch the frame work,
the insects will be injured by the jerk, or,
as more frequently happens in this case,
be broken to pieces. On the contrary,
when the frame falls in upon a rabbet, it
is of no consequence whether the edge
of the frame sinks into the drawer below
the level of the heads of the pins on
which the insects are placed or not ; it is
only necessary to observe, that the glass
does not press upon the pins, since it is
the glass only that can come in contact
with them.

CABLE, a thick, large, strong rope,
commonly of hemp, which serves to keep
a ship at anchor.

There is no merchant ship, however
weak, but has, at least three cables ;
namely, the chief cable, or cable of the
sheet-anchor, a common cable, and a
smaller one.

Cable is also said of ropes which serve
to raise heavy loads, by the help of cranes,
pullies, and other engines. The name of
cable is usually given to such as are, at
least three inches in diameter ; those
that are less are only called ropes of dif-
ferent names, according to their use.

Every cable, of what thickness soever
it be, is composed of three strands, every
strand of three ropes, and every rope of
three twists ; the twist is made of more-
or less threads, according as the cable is
to be thicker or thinner.

In the manufacture of cables, after the
ropes are made, they use sticks, which
they pass first between the ropes of which
they make the strands, and afterwards
between the strands of which they make
the cable, to the end that they may all
twist the better, and be more regularly
wound together; and also to prevent
them from twining or entangling, they
hang at the end of each strand and of each
rope a weight of lead or of stone.

The number of threads each cable is
composed 'of is always proportioned to
its length and thickness ; and it is by this
number of threads that its weight and
value are ascertained ; thus, a cable of
three inches circumference, or one inch
diameter, ought to consist of forty-fight
ordinary threads, and weigh 192 pounds:
and on this foundation is calculated the
following table, very useful for all peo-

VOL. III.

Circumf. Threads.

inches, 48 .

.... 77 .

. ... 121 .

.... 174 .

.... 238 .

. ... 311 .

.... 393 .

.... 485 .

.... 598 .

.... 699 .

.... 821 .

.... 952 .

. . . 1093 .

. . . 1244 .

. . . 1404 .

. . . 1574 .

. . . 1754 .

. . . 1943 .

pie engaged in marine commerce, who
fit out merchantmen for their own ac-
count, or freight them for the account of
others.

A table of the number of threads and
weight of cables of different circumfer-
ences.

Weight.

. 192 pounds.

. 308

. 484

. 696

. 952

. 1244

. 1572

. 1940

. 2392

. 2796

. 3284

. 3808

. 4372

. 4976

. 5616

. 6296

. 7016

. 7772

CABLE, sheet anchor, is the greatest ca-
ble belonging to a ship.

CABLE, to splice a, is to make two pieces
fast together, by working the several
threads of the rope, the one into the
other.

CABLE, pay more, is to let more out of
the ship. Pay cheap the cable, is to hand
it out apace. Veer more cable, is to let
more out, &c.

CABLED, in heraldry, a term applied
to a cross, formed of the two ends of a
ship's cable : sometimes also to a cross
covered over with rounds of rope, more
properly called a cross corded.

CABOCHED, in heraldry, is when the
heads of beasts are borne without any
part of the neck full faced.

CACALIA, in botany, a genus of the
Syngenesia Polygamia class and order.
Natural order of Composite Discoideae :
Corymbiferae, Jussieu. Essential charac-
ter : calyx cylindric, oblong, at the base
only subcalycled ; down capillary ; recep-
tacle naked. There are thirty-three
species, of which we shall only give a
short description of two or three. C. ca-
pillaris, or rough stalked cacalia, has the
foot stalk very strong and thick, and is
set round on every side, being destitute
of leaves, with three truncated foot
stalks, and thus is the stem defended iu
a singular manner from external injuries.
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope,

CAC

CAD

and is cultivated in England, but has ne-
ver yet produced flowers. C. suaveolens,
sweet-scented cucalia, has a perennial
creeping root, sending out many stalks ;
these rise to the height of seven or eight
feet, are streaked, quite simple, and ter-
nated by corymbs of white flowers ;
the peduncles above the ramifications
have bristle-shaped bractes scattered
over them, which are smooth. It is a na-
tive of Virginia and Canada; flowering
in August, and ripening its seeds in Octo-
ber. The roots which have been cast out
of the Chelsea gardens have been carried
by the tide to a great distance, and lodg-
ed on the banks of the rivers, and fasten-
ed themselves to the ground, where they
have increased so much as almost to ap-
pear as if they were natives. C. articu-
lata, jointed stalked cacalia, is an elegant
plant, smooth and glaucous, of an un-
pleasant flavour : stems many, fleshy,
round, upright, but weak, marked with
scars from the fallen leaves, and painted
with lines of a deep green ; florets twen-
ty-five, a little longer than the calyx,
white, with border acute, and spreading
much; anthers dark purple ; stigma bifid,
yellow ; seeds linear, crowned with a
white sessile egret. Found at the Cape
of Good Hope. It flowers in Novem-
ber.

CACAO, the chocolate tree, in botany.
See THKOBROMA.

CACHRYS, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Digynia class and order. Na-
tural order of Umbellatae. Essential cha-
racter : fruit subovate, angular, suberous,
cortical. There are five species, of which
C. libanotis, smooth-seeded cachrys, has
a thick fleshy root like fennel which runs
deep into the ground, sending out seve-
ral narrow pinnate leaves, ending in ma-
ny points ; between these arises a smooth
jointed stalk, about three feet high,
which is terminated by large umbels of
yellow flowers. Native of Sicily. C. te-
nuifolia, five-leaved cachrys : root peren-
nial, fleshy, gratefully aromatic, with
branches an inch thick, a cubit in length,
covered with a smooth bark ; umbels al-
most a span in diameter, consisting of
from sixteen to twenty rays, about two
inches in length ; flowers yellow. Native
of Montpellier, flowering in May.

CACTUS, in botany, a genus of the
Icosandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Succulents. Cacti, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : calyx one-
leafed, superior, imbricate ; corolla mani-
fold ; berry one-celled, many-seeded.
There are twenty-seven species. This
genus consists of succulent plants, per-

manent in duration, singular and various
in structure ; generally without leaves,
having the stem or branches jointed ; for
the most part armed with spines in bun-
dles, with which, in many species, bris-
tles are intermixed. The bundles of
spines are placed on the top of the tu-
bercles in the C. mammillaris, smaller
melon thistle, which is tubercled all over,
and produces its flowers between the
tubercles. In C. melocactus, great melon
thistle, orturk's cap, the spines are rang-
ed in a single row on the ridge of the
ribs : when it is cut through the middle,
the inside is found to be a soft, green,
fleshy, substance, very full of moisture.
The flowers and fruit are produced in
circles round the upper part of the cap.
C. pitajaya, torch thistle, or torch wood,
is upright, and grows to the height of
eight or ten feet. The flower is whitish,
very handsome, but has scarcely any
smell ; it is half a foot in diameter, and
blows in the night. The fruit is of the
form and size of a hen's egg, of a shining
scarlet colour on the outside ; the pulp
is white, fleshy, sweet, eatable, full of
small black seeds. C. grandiflorus, great
flowering creeping cereus; and C. fla-
gelliformis, pink flowering creeping ce-
reus, are the same with those already
mentioned, except that the stems are
weak, "and cannot support themselves;
they therefore seek assistance, and throw
out roots from the stem like ivy. C. mo-
niliformis, necklace Indian fig ; the
branches are jointed, and very much flat-
ted ; the bundles of apines or bristles are
scattered over the surface, and the flow-
ers are produced from the edge of the
branches. C. phyllanthus, spleenwort-
leaved Indian fig, has the branches much
thinner, and may be fairly denominated
leaves ; they are indented along the edge,
and the flowers come out singly from the
indentures. The fruit in some of the
sorts is small, like currants, but in most it
is large, and shaped like a fig; whence
their name of Indian fig. These singular
plants are all natives of the continent of
South America and the West Indian
islands.

CADENCE, in music, according to the
ancients, is a series of a certain number
of notes, in a certain interval, which
strike the ear agreeably, and especially
at the end of the song, stanza, See. It
consists ordinarily of three notes. Ca-
dence, in the modern music, may be de-
fined, a certain conclusion of a song, or of
the parts of a song, which divide it, as it
were, into so many numbers or periods.
It is when the parts terminate in a chord

CAD

CJES

•r note, the ear seeming naturally to ex-
pect it ; and is much the same in a song,
as the period that closes the sense in a
paragraph of a discourse. See Music.

CADEXCE, in rhetoric and poetry, the
running of verse or prose, otherwise
called the numbers, and by the ancients

CADENCE, in dancing, is when the se-
veral steps and motions follow, or corre-
spond, to the notes and measures of the
music.

CADENCE is used as a military term, and
implies a very regular and uniform me-
thod of marching, by the drum and mu-
sic ; it may not, says a good writer on
this subject, be improperly called ma-
thematical marching ; for after the length
of the step is determined, the time and
distance may be found.

CADET is a military term, denoting a
young gentleman who chooses to carry
arms in a marching regiment as a private
man. His views are, to acquire some
knowledge of the art of war, and to ob-
tain a commission in the army. Cadet
differs from volunteer, as the former
takes pay, whereas the latter serves with-
out any pay. There is a company of gen-
tlemen cadets maintained at Woolwich,
at the King's expense, where they are
taught all the sciences necessary to form
a complete officer.

CADI, or CADHI, a judge of the civil af-
fairs in the Turkish empire. It is gene-
rally taken for the judge of a town ;
judges of provinces being distinguished
by the appellation of mollas.

CADIA, in botany, a genus of the De-
candria Monogynia class and order. Es-
sential character : calyx five-cleft ; petals
five, equal, obcordate, legume, many-
seeded. There is but one species ; viz.
C. purpurea, purple flowered cadia, is a
shrub rising to the height of three feet.
The leaves are pinnate, coming out al-
ternately ; leaflets from 15 to 30 pairs,
linear, retuse, the nerve ending in a little
point. The corolla is rose coloured, or
rather the colour of a peach blossom ;
legume somewhat less than a span in
length, containing eight or ten seeds. It
is a native of Arabia.

CADUCI, in botany, the name of a class
of plants in Linnxus's Methodus Calycina,
consisting of plants of which the calyx is
a simple perianthium, supporting a sin-
gle flower, or fructification, and falling
off either before or with the petals. It
stands opposed to the Persistentes, in the
same method, and is exemplified in mus-
tard, sinapi, and ranunculus. The term

caducous is expressive of the shortest
period of duration, and has different ac-
ceptations, according to the different
parts of plants to which it is applied. A
calyx is said to be caducous, which drops
at the first opening of the petals, or
even before, as in the poppy. Petals are
caducous, which are scarcely unfolded
before they fall off, as in the meadow
rue ; and such leaves have obtained this
denomination as fall before the end of
the summer.

CADUS, in antiquity, a wine vessel of
a certain capacity, containing a 80 am-
phorae, or firkins, each of which, accord-
ing to the best accounts, held nine gal-
lons.

C.32CUM, or COCCUM, in anatomy, the
blind gut, or first of the large intestines.
See AXATOMY,

CJENOPTERFS, in botany, a genus of
the Cryptogamia Filices. Generic cha-
racter: fructifications in sub marginal la-
teral lines, covered with a membrane
gaping on the outside. There is but one
species ; viz. C. rhizophylla, common
peduncle or rachis, round, brown, and
smooth, elongated at the tip, leafless;
bulbiferous rooting; partial peduncles
green, flatted, sometimes winged. Fruc-
tifications in short, solitary, \ateral lines,
beginning at the nerve towards the base
of the pinnules, and covered with an en-
tire scariose brown membrane. Native of
the island of Dominica.

CJESALPINA, in botany, a genus of
the Decandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Lomentacese. Le-
guminosae, Jussieu. Essential character:
calyx five parted, the lowest segment
longer, and slightly arched ; stamen wool-
ly at the base ; petals five ; legume com-
pressed. There are eight species, of
which C. elata is a tree with bipinnate
leaves of seven pairs ; the leaflets fifteen
pairs, quite entire, minute ; flowers large,
and of a yellow colour; filaments very
dark purple, villose at the base. It is a
native of India. C. pulcherrima, the Bar-
badoes flower fence, rises with a straight
stalk ten or twelve feet high : it is cover-
ed with a smooth grey bark : it divides
into several spreading branches at the top,
arched at eacli joint with two short,
strong, crooked spines. The branches
are terminated by loose spikes of flowers,
which are sometimes formed into a kind
of pyramid, and at others they are dispos-
ed more in form of an umbel. The pe-
duncle of each flower is nearly three in-
ches long. The petals are roundish at
the top : they spread open, and are beau-

CAI

tifully variegated with a deep red or
orange colour, yellow, and some spots of
grc en, and have a very agreeable odour.
This beautiful plant is a native of both
Indies. It is planted in hedges to divide
the lands in Uarbadoes, whence it has the
name of flower-fence.

C VESA It, in Roman antiquity, a title
borne by all the emperors, from Julius
Caesar to the destruction of the empire.
It was also used as a title of distinction
for the intended or presumptive heir
of the empire, as king of the Romans is
now used for that of the German empire.
This title took its rise from the surname
of the first emperor, C. Julius Caesar,
\vhich, by a decree of the senate, all the
succeeding emperors were to bear. Un-
der his successor, the appellation of Au-
gustus being appropriated to the em-
perors, in compliment to that prince, the
title Caesar was given to the second per-
son in the empire, though still it continu-
ed to be given to the first; and hence
the difference betwixt Caesar used simply,
and Caesar with the addition of Imperator
Augustus.

C.2ESARIAN section, in midwifery, a
chirurgical operation, by which the foetus
is delivered from the womb of its mother,
when it cannot be done in the natural
way See MIDWIFERY.

C^SULIA, in botany, a genus of the
Syngenesia JEqualis, Receptacle chaffy ;
seeds involved in the chaff'; calyx three-
leaved. Two species viz. C. axillaris, a
native of the East Indies, and C. radicans,
a native of Guinea.

CAESURA, in the ancient poetry, is
when, in the scanning of a verse, a word
is divided, so as one part seems cut off',
and goes tp a different foot from the
rest; as,

JWenti\ri no\li nun\quam men\dacia \ pro-

aunt.

where the syllables ri, li, quam, and men,
are caesuras.

Caesura more properly denotes a cer-
tain and agreeable division of the words
between the feet of a verse, whereby the
last syllable of a word becomes the first
of afoot, as in

Jlrma I'irumque cano, Trojoe qui primus

ab oris,

where the syllables no and j* are caesu-
ras,

CAESURA or CJESURE, in the modern
poetry, denotes a rest, or pause, towards
the middle of an Alexandrine verse, by
which the voice and pronunciation are
aided, and the verse, as it were, divided
into two hemistichs. In Alexandrine

verses of twelve or thirteen syllables,
the caesure must always be on the sixth ;
in verses of ten, on the fourth ; and in
those of twelve, on the sixth ; verses of
eight syllables must not have any cae-
sure

CJETERIS paribus, a Latin term, often
used by mathematical and physical wri-
ters, the words literally signifying " the
rest, or the other things, being alike, or
equal." Thus we say, the heavier the
bullet, "cseteris paribus," the greater
the range : i. e. by how much the bullet is
heavier, if the length and diameter of
the piece, and the quantity and strength
of the powder be the same, by so much
will the utmost range or distance of a
piece of ordnance be greater. Thus also,
in a physical way, we say, the velocity
and quantity of the blood circulating, in a
given time, through any section of an
artery, will, " caeteris paribus," be accord-
ing to its diameter, and nearness to or
distance from the heart.

CAILLE (NICHOAAS LEWIS DE LA,)
in biography, an eminent French mathe-
matician and astronomer, was born in the
diocese of Rheims in 1713. His father
having quitted the army, in which he had
served, amused himself in his retirement
with studying mathematics and mecha-
nics, in which he proved the happy author
of several inventions of considerable use
to the public. From this example of
his father, our author, almost in his in-
fancy, took a fancy to mechaincs, which
proved of signal service to him in his
maturer years. At school he discov-
ered early tokens of genius. He next
came to Paris in 1729, where he studi-
ed ihe classics, philosophy, and mathe-
matics. He afterwards studied divinity
in the College de Navarre, with the view-
embracing the ecclesiastical life, but never
entered into priest's orders. His turn
for astronomy soon connected him with
the celebrated Cassini, who procured him
an apartment in the observatory : where,
assisted by the councils of this master,
he soon acquired a name among the as-
tronomers. In 1739 he was joined with
M. Cassini de Thury, son to M. Cassini,
in verifying the meridian through the
whole extent of France ; and in the same
year he was named professor of mathe-
matics in the College of Mazarine. In
1741 he was admitted into the Academy
of Sciences, and had many excellent pa-
pers inserted in their memoirs ; besides
which, he published several useful' trea-
tises, viz. Elements of Geometry, Astro-
nomy, Mechanics, and Optics. He also

CAI

carefuly computed all the eclipses cfthe
sun and moon tiua had happened since
the cimstiaii sera, whicli were printed in
the work, entitled " L'Art de verifier les
Dates," &c. Paris, 175U, in 4to. He also
compiled a volume ot astronomical ephe-
mendcs tor the years 1745 to 1755 ; an-
other for the years 1755 to 1765 ; and a
third for the years 1765 to 1775; as also
the most correct solar tables of any ; and
an excellent work, entitled " Astronomic
Fundamenta novissimis> Solis et Stellarum
Observatiombus stabilita."

Having gone through a seven year's
series of astronomical oDserv ations in his
own observatory in the Mazarine College,
lie formed the project of going to observe
the southern stars at the Cape of Good
Hope ; being countenanced by the court,
he set out upon this expedition in 1750,
and in the space of two years he observed
there the places of about 10,000 stars in
the southern hemisphere, that are not vi-
sible in our latitudes, as well as many
other important elements, viz. the paral-
laxes of the sun, moon, and some of the
planets, the obliquity of the ecliptic, the
refractions, &.c. Having thus executed
the purpose of his voyage, and no present
opportunity ottering for his return, he
thought of employing the vacant time in
another arduous attempt; no less than
that of taking the measure of the earth,
as he had already done that of the heavens,
whence he discovered, that the radii of
the parallels in south latitude are not the
same length as those of the corresponding
parallels in north latitude. About the
23d degree of south latitude he found a
degree on the meridian to contain 342222
Paris feet. The court of Versailles also
sent him an order to go and fix the situa-
ation of the isles of France and of Bour-
bon.

M. de la Caille returned to France in the
autumn of 1754, after an absence of about
four years ; loaded, not indeed with the
spoils of the East, but with those of the
southern heavens, before then almost un-
known to astronomers. Upon his return,
he first drew up a reply to some strictures
which the celebrated Euler had published
relative to the meridian; after which he
settled the results of the comparison o£
his observations for the parallaxes, with
those of other astronomers : that of the
sun he fixed at 9$" ; of the moon at 56'
56" ; of Mars in his opposition, 36" ; of
Venus 38". He also settled the laws by
which astronomical refractions are varied
by the different density or rarity of the
air, by heat or cold, and by dryness or

moisture. And, lastly, he shewed an
easy and practicable method of finding
the longitude at sea by means of the
moon. His fame being now celebrated
every where, M. de la Caille was soon
elected a member of most of the acade-
mies and Societies of Europe, as London,
Bologna, Petersburg!!, Berlin, Stockholm,
and Gottingen. He died in 1762, aged 49.

CAISSON, in the military art, a wooden
chest, into which several bombs are put,
and sometimes only filled with gunpow-
der; this is buried under some work,
whereof the enemy intend to possess
themselves, and when they are masters
of it, is fired, in order to blow them up.

CAISSON is also used for a wooden
frame, or chest, used in laying the foun-
dations of the piers of a bridge.

The practice in building in caissons is
a method sometimes adopted in laying
the foundation of bridges in very deep or
rapid rivers. There are large hollow-
vessels, framed of strong timbers, and
made water tight, which being launched
and floated to a proper position in the
river, where the ground has been previ-
ously excavated and levelled, are there
sunk. The piers of the bridge are then
built within them, and carried up above,
or nearly to the level of the water, when
the sides of the caisson are detached from
the bottom, and removed ; the bottom,
composed of a strong grating of timber,
remaining and serving for a foundation
to the pier. The most considerable
work, where caissons have been used,
was in the building of Westminster-
bridge ; of these, therefore, a particular
account may be acceptable. Each of the
caissons contained 150 loads of fir timber,
and was of more tonnage than a man of
war of 40 guns ; their size was nearly 80
feet from point to point, and 30 feet in
breadth ; the sides, which were 10 feet
in height, were formed of timbers laid
horizontally' over one another, pinned
with oak trunnels, and .framed together
at all the corners, except the salient an-
gles, where they were secured by proper
iron- work, which, being unscrewed, would
permit the sides of the caisson, had it
been found necessary, to divide into two
parts. These sides were planked across
the timbers, inside and outside, with 3 inch
planks, in a vertical position. The thick-
ness of the sides was 18 inches at bottom,
and 15 inches at top ; and in order to
strengthen them the more, every angle,
except the two points, had three oaken
knee timbers,properly bolted and secured.
These sides, when finished, were fasten-

CA1

CAL

fed to the bottom, or grating, by 28 pieces
of timber on the outside, and 18 within,
called straps, about 8 inches broad, and
about 3 inches thick, reaching and lapping
over the tops of the sides; the lower
part of these straps were dove-tailed to
the outer curb of the grating, and kept
in their places by iron wedges. The pur-
pose of these straps and wedges was,
that when the pier was built up suffici-
ently high above low-water mark, to ren-
der the caisson no longer necessary for
the masons to work in, the wedges be-
ing drawn up gave liberty to clear the
straps from the mortices, in consequence
of which the sides rose by their own buoy-
ancy, leaving the grating under the foun-
dation of the pier. The pressure of the
water upon the sides of the caisson
was resisted by means of a ground timber
or ribbon, 14 inches wide and 7 inches
thick, pinned upen the upper row of tim-
bers of the grating; and the top of the
sides was secured by a sufficient number
of beams laid across, which also served
to support a floor, on which the labour-
ers stood to hoist the stones out of the
lighters, and to lower them into the cais-
son. The caisson was also provided with
a sluice, to admit the water. The method
of working was as follows : A pit being
dug, and levelled in the proper situation
for the pier of the same shape of the cais-
son, and about five feet wider all round,
the caisson was brought to its position, a
few of the lower courses of the pier built
in it, and sunk once or twice, to prove
the level of the foundation ; then, being
finally fixed, the masons worked in the
usual methods of tide-werk. About two
hours before low water, the sluice of
the caisson, kept open till then, lest
the water, flowing to the height of many
more feet on the outside than the inside,
should float the caisson and all the stone-
work out of its true place, was shut
down, and the water pumped low enough,
without waiting for the lowest ebb of
the tide, for the masons to set and cramp
the stonework of the succeeding courses.
Then, when the tide had risen to a con-
siderable height, the sluice was opened
again, and the water admitted ; and as
the caisson was purposely built but 16
feet high, to save useless expence, the
high tides flowed some feet above the
sides, but without any damage or incon-
venience to the vrorks. In this manner
the work proceeded till the pier rose to
the surface of the caisson, when the
sides were floated away, to serve the same
purpose at another pier.

CAKILE, in botany, sea-rocket, a genuj
of the TetrandriaSiliculosa class and order.
Silicic lanceolate, somewhat four-sided,
consisting of two deciduous joints, with-
out valves, and each containing a single
seed : the lower joint with a tooth on
each side at the lip. There are two
species, viz. C. maritima, found on the
sea-coast of England ; C. JEgyptiaca, a
native of Italy and Egypt.

CALAGUALA root, brought from A-
merica for medicinal purposes, and has
acquired considerable reputation on the
continent. It is supposed to be obtained
from a species of poly podium. Its colour
is brown, and partly covered with scales,
like the roots of fern, and is hard and
difficult to reduce to powder. It is as-
serted by Vauquelin that it contains

Colouring matter
Malic acid

Woody fibre

Gum

Resin Muriate of potash

Sugar Lime

Starch Silica.

The mode of analysis may be thus de-
scribed. Alcohol dissolves the resin and
sugar. By evaporating the solution to
dryness, and treating the residue with
water, the sugar is separated, and the
resin left. Water dissolved the gum and
the muriate of potash, which were ob-
tained by evaporation. Diluted nitric
acid dissolved the starch and colouring
matter, and let fall the former, when
mixed with four times its bulk of alco-
hol. The woody fibre remained, which,
when incinerated, left carbonate of lime,
muriate of potash, and a little silica. As
the decoction reddened vegetable blues,
it is possible that the lime was in com-
bination with malic acid.

CALAMANCO, a sort of woollen stuff
manufactured in England and in Brabant.
It has a fine gloss, and is chequered in
the warp, whence the checks appear only
on the right side. Some calamancoes are
quite plain, others have broad stripes
adorned with flowers ; some with plain
broad stripes, some with narrow stripes,
and others watered.

CALAMARLE, in botany, the name of
a third order in Linnaeus's " Fragments
of a Natural Method." This order will
be easily distinguished from the family of
grasses, by recollecting, 1. That the base
of the leaf, which embraces the stalk like
a glove, has no longitudinal aperture in
plants of this order, but is perfectly en-
tire : 2. The stalk is generally triangular,

CAL

and without knots or j oints: 3, The flow-
ers have no petals.

CAL A MIX A HIS, or lapis calammaris,
9. mineral containing zinc, united with
iron and other substances It is heavy,
hard, and brittle, or of a consistence be-
tween stone and earth. The colour is
whitish or grey, sometimes inclining to
yellow, and sometimes to black. It is
found in great plenty in many parts of
Europe ; but the best is obtained in this
couniry. It seldom lies deep, and in
many parts it is found mixed with lead
ores. Calamine is the only true ore from
which zinc is obtained by calcination.
See Zisc.

CALAMUS, in botany, a genus of the
Hexandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order Tripetaloideze. Palmac, Jus-
sieu. Essential character: calyx six-
leaved ; corolla none ; berry dried, one-
seeded, imbricate backwards. According
to Martyn, there is but one species,
though Loareiro has discriminated six ;
viz. C. rotang, rattan, has u perennial
stem, quite simple or unbranched, with-
out any tendrils : leaves alternate, sub-
lanceolate, quite entire, scarcely a foot
long: flowers commonly hermaphrodite,
almost terminating on one spadix or more.
The rattan seems to form the connecting
link between the palms and the gramine-
ous plants, having the flower of the form-
er, but the habit of the latter. The palm
called raphia has the embryo placed in
the same manner, namely, on a lateral
cavity of the horny albumen; in the fruit
and spadix it agrees nearly with this in
form, only they are much larger : the
flowers differ but little, except that they
are monoecous, as the flowers of the rat-
tan probably are.

CALCAR, corollac, in botany, the spur
of the corolla. The nectarium, so called,
which terminates the corolla behind, like
a cock's spur, in valerian, orchis, violet,
balsam, larkspur, &c.

CALCEOLARIA, in botany, a genus of
the Diandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Corydales. Scrophula-
rise, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla
ringent, inflated; capsule two-celled, two-
valved ; calyx four-parted, equal. There
are seven species, of which C. pinnata,
pinnated slipper- wort, has an annual root ;
stem erect, two feet high, round, brittle,
with a thick down, and from sixteen to
twenty joints; flowers from each top and
stalk double; corollas yellow; upper-lip
subglobular, inflated, emarginate in front,
with a cleft for the prominent anthers;
capsule thin, from a swelling base, dimin-

ishing to a pyramidal top ; seeds very
small, almost cylindric, sreaked : native of
Peru, in moist places.

CALCINATION, in chemistry. A sub-
stance is said u> be calcined, when it has
been exposed to heat of a sufficient inten-
sity to drive off every thing volatile, but
short of that by which it might be fused :
a calyx, therefore, was formerly under-
stood to be a pulverulent substance, no
longer combustible, or capable of fur-
ther alteration by fire than that of vitrifi-
cation. As most metals were found to
be reducible to such a form by the con-
tinuance of the melting heat, the term
" calces of metals" wasj long appropri-
ated to them, and is stiJI partially retained,
though it has been chiefly supplanted
by the more characteristic appellation of
oxide, which expresses the peculiar
change that occurs in metallic bodies by
the absorption of oxygen Calcination
expresses the mode, by which, in metals,
this change is produced, and oxydation
the circumstance of change. It is, how-
ever, improper to consider the term cal-
cination as synonymous with oxydation,
even in speaking of metals, since the
former term implies the agency of fire ;
whereas oxydation may be produced as
well by the action of acids, as by heat and
air.

CALCITRAPA, in botany, a genus of
the Tetrandria Monogynia class and or-
der; calyx four-cleft; corolla four-cleft ;
berry four-seeded. There are twelve spe-
cies, found in both Indies, Cochin-China,
and Japan.

CALCULATION, the act of comput-
ing several sums, by adding, substracting,
multiplying, or dividing. See ARITH-
METIC.

An error in calculation is never protect-
ed or secured by any sentence, decree,
&c. for in stating accounts it is always un-
derstood that errors of calculation are
excepted.

CALCULATION is more particularly used
to signify the computations in astronomy
and geometry, for making tables of loga-
rithms, ephemerides, finding the time of
eclipses, &c.

CALCUCATIOF, in music : many emi-
nent mathematicians suppose that a good
ear, and strong hand on instruments,
where the tone depends on the performer,
are the musician's best guide, without
having recourse to calculation. On this
subject the celebrated D'Alembert says,
"It is an achievement of no small im-
portance, to have deduced the principal
facts to a system from one experiment,

CALCULI.

vis. the harmonies of a single string.
Calculation may, indeed, facilitate the
intelligence of certain points of theory,
such as the relation between the tones of
the gamut and temperament ; but the
calculation necessary for treating these
two points is so simple and trifling, that
it merits no display. Let us not, there-
fore, imitate those musicians, who believe
themselves geometricians, or those ge-
ometricians, who fancy themselves musi-
cians, and in their writings heap figures
on figures, imagining, perhaps, that this
display is necessary to the art." See

CALCULI, biliary, in chemistry, are
small stones found in the gall-bladder, and
probably formed by the changes produ-
ced on the bile while it remains in that
organ. These are not uniform in their
appearance, but vary in colour, texture,
and hardness. The most common are
of a lamellated structure, resembling
spermaceti, disposed in crystalline lami-
nae, which have a close resemblance in
their properties to ADIPOGIHE, which see.
Biliary calculi are soluble in oil of turpen-
tine ; but more completely in the fixed
alkalies, by which they are reduced to a
saponaceous state. Ammonia, unless in
the boiling state, has little effect upon
them. Nitric acid dissolves them, form-
ing a liquid similar to the oil of camphor,
which becomes concrete, and without
any crystalline structure, and is more solu-
ble in ether, and the alkalies, than the
original matter. This substance is con-
tained, in a greater or less degree, in
nearly all the human biliary calculi :
hence they partake of its properties:
are fusible, inflammable, and more or less
soluble in the re-agents which dissolve
it. Other calculi are occasionally found
in the gall -bladders of quadrupeds, which
have been supposed to consist of inspis-
sated bile ; they are irregular, and of va-

CSpecies 1. Calculus of
Genus I. < . . 2 .....

d .3. ...

rious forms, ©all-stones in general are
distinguished for their lightness and in-
flammability, few of them being so heavy
as to sink in water, and when put to a
lighted candle they usually melt like
wax, and kindle with a bright flame, at-
tended with an ammoniacal smell.

CALCCLI, urinary, concretion? formed
in the kidney or bladder, and composed,
in greater or smaller proportions, of the
following substances, viz. uric acid, urate
of ammonia, phosphate of lime, phosphate
of ammonia and magnesia, oxalate of
lime, silex, and animal albumen. These
principles being more or less common,
and in different proportions, give rise to
numerous varieties.

The calculi most common are those
composed of uric acid; they are gene-
rally of a brown or yellowish colour,
smooth on the surface, and with a tex-
ture compact or radiated ; they are per-
fectly soluble in alkaline solutions, and
give a red colour when treated with nitric
acid. Dr. Wollaston has ananged the
urinary calculi under four species, viz. 1.
The uric acid concretion : 2. Tlie fusible
calculus, or phosphate of ammonia and
magnesia : 3 The mulberry calculus, or
ox'ila>e and phosphate of lime: And, 4.
the bony earthy calculus, composed of
phosphate of lime, which forms the basis
of bone. Fourcroy and Vauquelin have
given a different arrangement; they af-
firm that in all calculi there exists a quan-
tity of animal mutter, which appears to
connect their particles; but independently
of this, which is common to the whole,
th^y compose three genera ; the first
contains three species, each formed of
one ingredient ; the second comprises
seven species, formed of two ingredients
each : and in the third there aiv two
species, consisting of three or four ingre-
dienis; this system is exhibited in the
following table :

uric acid,
urate of ammonia,
oxalate of lime

5 uric acid and earthy phosphates, in dis-
' C tinct layers

5 uric acid and earthy phosphates, inti-
' C mately mixed

5 urate of ammonia and phosphates, in dis-
C tinrt layers.

Genus II.

5 urate of ammonia and phosphates, inti-
*C mately mixed.
5 earthy phosphates, either mixed intimate-

C ly or in fine layers

oxalate of lime and uric acid, in distinct

layers.

C oxah-e of lime and earthy phosphates, in
10' ' * ' ' i distinct layers.

CAL

GAL

Genus III.

It becomes a question of great import-
ance and interest to mankind, how far the
solution of calculi in the bladder may be
practicable. From what has been said, it
is evident, that, being of very different
chemical composition, the same solvent
cannot be applicable to all of them. Long
experience has sufficiently established the
advantage of alkaline remedies ; and as
the calculi composed of uric acid are un-
questionably the most abundant, it is no
doubt from the chemical action they ex-
ert upon it that the benefit is derived.
Lime, under the form of lime-water, has
been employed as a solvent : and from
some experiments of Dr. Egan, it should
seem that lime-water acts with more ener-
gy than an alkaline solution of similar
strength, in destroying the aggregation
of urinary concretion. Mr. Murray bears
his testimony to the same fact : " I ob-
served," says he, " this effect strikingly
displayed in a comparative trial which
these experiments led me to make. In a
dilute solution of pure potassa, a calculus
of the uric acid kind was in part dissolv-
ed, the liquor, after a short time, giving
a copious white precipitate with muriatic
acid ; but the remaining calculus preserv-
ed its aggregation, apparently without
much alteration, the external layer hav-
ing been merely removed ; while a cal-
culus of a similar kind, and discharged
from the person, immersed in lime-water,
became in a few days white and spongy :
it appeared at length to be entirely pene-
trated ; its cohesion was subverted ; it
presented a kind of loose scaly appear-
ance, and the least touch marie it fall
down. The lime probably operates more
upon the albumen or animal matter,
which appears to serve as the cement or
connecting substance, than upon the uric
acid ; and in endeavouring to discover
solvents for these concrections, our
views ought perhaps rather to be di-
rected to this operation than to the ef-
fect on the saline matter. If lime, when
received into the stomach under the
form of lime water, can be secreted by
the kidneys, as the alkalies unquestion-
ably are, it would appear from these ob-
servations to be superior to them as a
solvent.*'

CALCULUS denotes a method of com-
putation, so called from the calculi, or
counters, anciently used for this purpose.

VOL III.

^ uric acid, or urate of ammonia, earthy
£ phosphates, and oxalate of lime.
C uric acid, urate of ammonia, earthy phos«
2 phates, and si lex.

CALCULUS specialist or literalis. See AL-

GEBHA.

CALCULUS, differ 'entialis, is a method of
differencing quantities, that is, of finding
an infinitely small quantity, which, being
taken an infinitive number of times, shall
be equal to a given quantity. An infinite-
ly small quantity, or infinitesimal, is a
portion of a quantity less than any assign-
able one ; it is therefore accounted as no-
thing; and hence two quantities, only dif-
fering by an infinitesimal, are reputed
equal. The word infinitesimal is merely
respective, and implies a relation to ano-
ther quantity ; for example, in astronomy
the diameter of the earth is an infinitesi-
mal in respect to the distance of the fix-
ed stars. Infinitesimals are likewise call-
ed differentials, or differential quantities,
when they are considered as the differ-
ence of two quantities. Sir Isaac New-
ton calls them moments, considering them
as momentary increments of quantities ;
for instance, of a line generated by the
flux of a point, of a surface by the flux of
a line, or of a solid by the flux of a sur-
face. The calculus differentialis, there-
fore, and the doctrine of fluxions, are the
same thing, under different names, the
latter given by Sir laac Newton, and the
former by Mr. Leibnitz, who disputes
with Sir Isaac the honour of the discove-
ry. There is, however, one difference
between them, which consists in the man-
ner of expressing the differentials of
quantities : Mr. Leibnitz, and most fo-
reigners, express them by the same let-
ters as variable ones, prefixing only the
letter d : thus the differential of x is call-
ed d x, and the differential of y,dy: and
dx is a positive quantity, if x continually
increase ; and a negative quantity, if x de-
crease. We, on the other hand, follow-
ing Sir Isaac Newton, instead of dx vvrite
x', (with a dot over it,) and instead ofdy,
y. But foreigners reckon this method not
so commodious as the former, because, if
differentials were to be differenced again,
the dots would occasion great confusion ;
not to mention, that printers are more
apt to overlook a point than a letter. See
FLUXIONS.

CALCULUS exponentialis, among mathe-
maticians, a method of differencing ex-
ponential quantities, and summing up the
differentials of exponential quantities.
IJy an exponential quantity is meant, a

CAL

power, the exponent of which is varia-
ble, as xx\ ax. In order to difference an
exponential quantity, nothing else is re-
quired than to reduce ihe exponential
quantities to logarithmic ones, upon
which the differencing is managed as in
logarithmic ones.

By the same method may be found the
difierential of an exponential quantity of
any power. This calculus was invented
by Mr. John Bournoulli, and is used in
. investigating the properties of exponen-
tial curves.

CALCULUS integralis, is a method of sum-
ming up differential quantities ; that is,
from a differential quantity given, to find
the quantity from whose differencing the
given differential results.

It is the inverse of the calculus differ-
entialis ; whence the English, who usu-
ally call the differential method fluxions,
give this calculus, which ascends from
the fluxions to the flowing quantities ; or,
as Wolfius and other foreigners express
it, from the differences to the sums, the
name of the inverse method of fluxions.
See FLUXIOW.

CALEA, in botany, a genus of the Syn-
gynesia Polygamia JEqualis. Natural or-
der of Composite Oppositifolise. Corym-
biferae, Jussieu. Essential character : ca-
lyx imbricate ; down hairy, or none ; re-
ceptacle chaffy. There are seven species,
of which C. Jamaicensis has a shrubby
stem, six or seven feet high ; leaves hairy,
rugged, three-nerved ; flowers terminat-
ing, frequently three together; the pedi-
cles of the same length with the flowers ;
calyx coloured ; the pappus, or down, is
rugged, and as long as the flower. Native
of Jamaica, chiefly in the woods and in-
land parts of the island.

CALENDAR, a distribution of time,
accommodated to the various uses of life,
but more especially such as regard civil
and ecclessiatical polity ; in which sense
it differs nothing from the modern al-
manacs.

The first calendar was made by Romu-
lus, who divided the year into 10 months
only, beginning on the first day of March,
and containing 304 days, in which time
he imagined the sun performed his course
through all the seasons.

This calendar was reformed by Numa
Pompilius, who added two months more,
viz January and February, placing them
before March : his year began on the
first of January, and consisted of 555 days.
This was afterwards improved by Julius
Caesar, and was by him called the Julian
account, which reduced the year to 365
days 6 hours ; and was retained in most

protestant countries, and in our nation
till the year 1752. This year is disposed
into quadrennial periods, of which the
three first years, which were called com-
mon, consisted of 365 days, and the fourth,
bissextile, of 366. See BISSEXTILE.

The Julian account was afi erwards cor-
rected by Pope Gregory XIII., which on
that account obtained the name of the
Gregorian calendar, or new style, the Ju-
lian being called the old style: and though
the Gregorian calendar be preferable to
the Julian, yet it is not without its defects :
perhaps, as Tycho Brahe and Cassini ima-
gine, it is impossible ever to bring the
year to a perfect justness.

CALENDAR, Julian Christian, that where-
in the days of the week are determined
by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, by
means of the solor cycle ; and the new
and full moons, especially the paschal
full moon, with the feast of Easter, and
the other moveable feasts depending
thereon, by means of golden numbers,
rightly disposed through the Julian year.
See CTCLE, DOMINICAL LETTER, and GOLD-
EN NUMBER.

CALENDAR, Gregorian, that which, by
means of epacts, rightly disposed through
the several months, determines the new
and full moons, and the time of Easter,
with the moveable feasts depending
thereon, in the, Gregorian year. Therefore,
the Gregorian calendar differs from the
Julian, both in the form of the year, and
in that epacts are substituted instead of
golden numbers. See EPACT.

Dr. Playfair, in his " System of Chro-
nology," observes, that the method of in-
tercalation used in the Gregorian Calen-
'daris not the most accurate. Ninety-se-
ven days, or 100 — 3, are inserted in the
space of four centuries. This supposes
the tropical year to consist of 365d, 5h,
49', 12". On this supposition the inter-
polation would be exact, and the error
would scarcely exceed one day in 268,000
years. But the reformers of the calen-
dar made use of the Copernican year of
365d, 5''. 49', 20". Instead, therefore, of
inserting 97 days in 400 years, they ought
to have added, at proper intervals, 41
days in 169 years, or 90 days in 371 years,
or 131 in 540 years, &,c. Recent obser-
vations have determined the quantity of
the tropical year to be 365<J, 5*», 48', 45£".
Admitting this to be the true quantity of
it, the intercalations ought to be made as
follows :

-h - + h -f + + 4- +

_4 17 33 _128_545 673 801 9_29 1057 1185

T T 8 ' ~3? Ki2' 163' 199' 225' 256' 287*

CALENDAR.

1813
318'

1441 2754
349' 667'

4067 9447 51302
985* 22d8' 1242?'

60749 172800 . .
14713, H851{ thatls>oneda
be intercalated in the space of 4 years,
or rather 4 days in 17 years, or 8 days in
33 years, &c. If 41,851 days were inter-
calated in 172,800 years, there would be
no error. The signs + and — indicate
that the number of intercalary days above
which they are placed is too great or too
small. Every succeeding number is more
accurate than that which goes before. As
this method of interpolation is different
from that now in use, it is obvious that
the Gregorian calendar must be corrected
after a certain period of years. The cor-
rection, however, will be inconsiderable
for many ages, as it will amount only to
a day and a half, which is to be suppressed
in the space of 5000 years.

CALENDAR, reformed or corrected, that
which, setting aside golden numbers,
epacts, and dominical letters, determines
the equinox, with the paschal full moon,
and the moveable feasts depending there-
on, by astronomical computations, accord-
ing to the Rudolphine table. This calen-
dar was introduced among the Protestant
States of Germany in the year 1700, when
11 days were, at once, thrown out of the
month of February, by which means the
corrected style agree's with the Grego-
rian.

CALENDAR, French, new, is a quite new
form of calendar, that commenced in
France, on the 22d of September, 1792.

The year, in this calendar, commences
at midnight, the beginning of that day in
which falls the true autumnal equinox for
the observatory of Paris. The year is di-
vided into 12 equal months, of 30 days
each ; after which 5 supplementary days
are added, to complete the 365 days of
the ordinary year ; these 5 days do not
belong to any month. Each month is di-
vided into three decades of 10 days each ;
distinguished by 1st, 2d, and 3d decade.
All these are named according to the or-
der of the natural numbers, viz. the 1st,
2d, 3d, &c. month, or clay of the decade,
or of the supplementary days. The years
•which receive an intercalary day, when
the position of the equinox requires it,
which we call embolismic or bissextile,
they call Olympic ; and the period of four
years, ending with an olynfpic year, is
called an olympiade ; the intercalary day
being placed after the ordinary five sup-
plementary days, and making the last day

of the Olympic year. Each day, from
midnignt to midnight, is divided into 10
parts, each part into 10 others, and so on
to the least measurable portion of time.

In this calendar too the months and
days of them have new names. The first
three months of the year, of which the
autumn is composed, take their etymolo-
gy ; the first from the vintage, which
takes place from September to October,
and is called Vendemaire ; the second,
Brumaire, from the mists and low fogs,
which show, as it were, the transudation
of nature from October to November;
the third, Frimaire, from the cofd, some-
times dry and sometimes moist, which is
felt from November to December. The
three winter months take their etymolo-
gy ; the first, Nivose, from the snow
which whitens the earth from December
to January; the second, Pluviose, from
the rains which usually fall in greater
abundance from January to February ;
the third, Ventose, from the wind which
dries the earth from February to March.
The three spring months take their ety-
mology ; the first, Germinal, frooi the
fermentation and developement of the
sap from March to April ; the second,
Floreal, from the blowing of the flowers
from April to May ; the third, Prairial,
from the smiling fecundity of the meadow-
crops from May to June. Lastly, the
three summer months take their etymolo-
gy; the first, Messidor, from the appear-
ance of the waving ears of corn and the
golden harvests which cover the fields
from June to July ; the second, Thermi-
dor, from the heat, at once solar and ter-
restrial, which inflames the air from July
to August ; the third, Fructidor, from the
fruits gilt and ripened by the sun from
August to September. Thus, the whole
twelve months are,

AUTUMX.

Vendemaire

Brumaire

Frimaire

WIlfTER.

Nivose

Pluviose

Ventose

8PRIST6.

Germinal

Floreal

Prarial

SUMMER.

Messidor

Thermtdor

Fructidor.

From these denominations it follows,
that by the mere pronunciation of the
name of the month, every one readily
perceives three things, and all their re-
lations, viz. the kind of season, the tern-

CAL

jjcrature, and the state of vegetation :
for instance, in the word Germinal, his
imagination will easily conceive, by the
termination of the word, that the spring
commences; by the construction of the
word, that the elementary agents are
busied ; and by the signification of the
word, that the buds unfold themselves.

As to the names of the days of the
week, or decade of ten days each, which
they have adopted instead of seven, as
these bear the stamp of judicial astrolo-
gy and heathen mythology, they are sim-
ply called from the first ten numbers :
thus,

Primi

Duodi

Tridi

Quartidi

Quintidi

Sextidi

Septidi

Octidi

Nonidi

Decadi

In the almanac, or annual calendar, in-
stead of the multitude of saints, one for
each day in the year, as in the Popish ca-
lendars, they annex to every day the
name of some animal, or utensil, or
work, or fruit, or flower, or vegetable,
&c. appropriate and most proper to the
times.

CALENDAR, astronomical, an instrument
engraved upon copper-plates, printed on
paper, and pasted on board, with a brass
slider which carries a hair, and shows by
inspection, the sun's meridian altitude,
right ascension, declination, rising, set-
ting, amplitude, &c. to a greater exact-
ness than our common globes will shew.

CALENDAR of prisoners, a list of the
names of the prisoners in the custody of
the respective sheriffs of counties.

CALENDARIUM fora, among bota-
nists, a calendar, containing an exact
register of the respective times, in which
the plants of any given province, or cli-
mate, germinate, expand, and shed their
leaves and flowers, and ripen and disperse
seeds.

CALENDER, a machine used in manu-
factories, to press certain woollen and
silken stuffs and linens, to make them
even, smooth and glossy, or to give them
waves, or water them, as may be seen in
mohairs and tabbies. This instrument is
composed of two thick cylinders, or roll-
ers, of very hard and polished wood,
round which the stuffs to be calendered
are wound : these rollers are placed cross-
ways between two very thick boards, the
lower serving as a fixed base, and the
upper moveable, by means of a thick
screw, with a rope fastened to a spindle,

which makes its axis: the uppermost
board is loaded with large stones cement-
ed together, weighing 20,000#>s. or more.
It is this weight that gives the polish, and
makes the waves on the stuffs about the
rollers, by means of a shallow indenture
or engraving cut in it.

CALENDS, a Roman chronology, the
first day of each month, so called from
the Greek x*Ae <v, to proclaim ; it being
customary on those days to proclaim the
number of holy -days in each month. The
calends were reckoned backwards, or in
a retrograde order : thus the first of May
begins the calends of May ; the 30th of
April was the second of the calends of
May ; the 29th, the 3d, &c. to the 13th,
where the ides commence; which are
also number ed in a re trograde order to the
5th, where the nones begin ; and these
are numbered after the same manner to
the first of the month, which is the ca-
lends of April.

CALENDULA, in botany, the mari-
gold, a genus of the Syngenesia Polyga-
mia Necessaria class and order. Natural
order of Composite. Corymbiferae, Jus-
sieu : receptacle naked, flat ; calyx ma-
ny-leaved, nearly equal; seeds of the
disk membranaceous. According to Mar-
tyn there are fourteen species, but Gme-
lin enumerates twenty-five. The flowers
are commonly solitary and terminating.
Many of the species are herbaceous, and
natives of the Cape of Good Hope. Of
the garden marigold there are the follow-
ing varieties, T»Z. The single. The com-
mon double flowering. The largest very
double flowering. The double lemon-co-
loured, and the greater and smaller child-
ing marigold.

CALENTES, in logic, a sort of syllo-
gism in the fourth, commonly called ga*
lenical, figure, wherein the major propo-
sition is universal and affirmative ; and
the second or minor, as well as the con*
elusion, universal and negative.

This is intimated by the letters it is
composed of, where the A signifies an
universal affirmative, and the two E's as
many universal negatives. Ex. gr.

CA. Every affliction in this world is

only for a time.
lEn. No affliction, which is only for a

time, ought to disturb us.
tEs. No affliction ought to disturb us,

which happens in this world.

The Aristotelians, not allowing the
fourth figure of syllogisms, turn this word
into CElAntEs, and make it only an indi-
rect mood of the first figure.

CAL

CALENTURE, in medicine, a feverish
disorder incident to sailors in hot climates;
the principal symptom of which is, their
imagining the sea to be green fields:
hence, attempting to walk abroad in these
imaginary places of delight, they are fre-
quently lost.

CALIBER, or CALIPER, properly de-
notes the diameter of any body; thus we
say, two columns of the same caliber, the
caliber of the bore of a gun, the caliber
of a bullet, &c.

CALIBER, compasses, the name of an
instrument, made either of wood, iron,
steel, or brass : that used for measuring
bullets consists of two branches bending
inwards, with a tongue fixed to one of
them, and the other graduated in such
a manner, that if the bullet be compress-
ed by the ends of the two branches, and
the tongue be applied to the graduated
branch, it will shew the weight of the
bullet.

On these rulers are a variety of scales,
tables, proportions, &c. which are reckon-
ed very useful to gunners. On the best
caliber compasses we have the measure
of convex and concave diameters in inches.
2. The weight of iron shot from given
diameters. 3. The weight of iron shot
from given gun bores. 4. The degrees
of a semi-circle. 5. The proportion of
troy and avoirdupois weight. 6. The
proportion of English and French feet
and pounds. 7. Factors used in circu-
lar and spherical figures. 8. Tables of
the specific gravities and weights of bo-
dies. 9. Tables of the quantity of pow-
der necessary for proof and service of
brass and iron guns. 10. Rules for com-
puting the number of shot or shells in a
finished pile. 11. Rules concerning the
fall of heavy bodies. 12. Rules for raising
water and for firing artillery and mortars.
13. A line of inches. 14. Logarithmic
scales of numbers, sines, versed sines,
and tangents. 15. A sectoral line of
equal parts, or the line of lines. 16. A
sectoral line of planes and superficies. 17.
A sectoral line of solids.

CALIBER also signifies an instrument
used by carpenters, joiners, and brick-
layers, to see whether their work be well
squared.

CALICO, a species of cloth of cotton
thread, manufactured formerly in the
East Indies; but now we have in this
country established manufactories which
equal those in the East. It is said that
in this business, and in the printing of
calicoes, there are 150,000 persons em-
ployed. Cotton, in its raw state, is im-

ported into this country, but calicoes
are prohibited under the severest penal"
ties.

C±n co -printing : the art of cloth print-
ing or calico-printing : in other words, of
dyeing in certain colours particular spots
of the cloth, or figures impressed on it,
while the ground shall be of a different
colour or entirely white, affords perhaps
the most direct and obvious illustration
of the application of these principles.
The mordant which is principally used
in this process is the acetate of argil. It
is prepared by dissolving 3lbs. of alum
and lib. of acetate of lead in 8lbs. of warm
water. An exchange of the principles of
these salts takes place : the sulphuric acid
of the alum combines with the oxide of
lead, and the compound thus formed
being insoluble is precipitated, the acetic
acid remains united with the argil of the
alum in solution. There are added at
the same time two ounces of the potash
of commerce, and two ounces of chalk ;
the principal use of which appears to be,
to neutralize the excess of acid that might
act on the colouring matter, and alter its
shade.

The superiority of this acetate of argil
as a mordant to the cheaper sulphate of
argil of alum arises principally from two
circumstances, — from the affinity between
its principles being weaker, in conse-
quence of which the argil more easily se-
parates from the acid, and unites with
the cloth and the colouring matter : and
2dly, from the acetic acid disengaged in
the process not acting1 with the same
force on the colouring matter as the sul-
phuric acid would do. The acetate being
also very soluble, and having little ten-
dency to crystallize, can be more equally
mixed and applied. The discovery of
this mordant, so essential in the art of
calico-printing, was altogether accidental,
or rather empirical. The recipes of the
calico-printers were at one time very
complicated : different articles were from
time- to time omitted or changed, until at
length the simple mixture of alum and
acetate of lead was found to answer as a
mordant, equally with compositions more
complicated ; and even after its discovery,
its operation for a time was far from be-
ing understood by the artist. The mor-
dant thus prepared is thickened with
gum or starch ; or in this country, within
these few years, with the mucilage pre-
pared from lichens scalded and boiled
with a little potash. It is applied by
wooden blocks, or stamps, to the parts
of the cloth on which the figures cut in

CAL

the stamp are designed to be impressed,
or by a pencil, if more delicate lines are
to be traced. The cloth is afterwards
dried .horoughly, is washed in warm
water to remove the mucilage and the
superfluous mordant, and is then dipped
in the dye colour, supposed to be an
infusion of madder ; the whole is dyed,
but the parts which have been impreg-
nated with the mordant receive a brighter
colour .than the part which has not : the
colour too of the former is permanent,
while that of tlie latter is fugitive. It is
discharged by subsequent boiling with
•substances having a weak attraction to
the colouring matter, principally with
bran, and by exposure on the field, re-
peating these alternately. The ground
of the cloth is thus at length rendered
white, while the colours of the parts
on which the mordant has been impress-
ed, representing of course the design on
the stamp, remain with little or no alter-
ation.

Sometimes, after the whole cloth has
been permanently dyed, by having been
imp/egnated with the mordant, the colour
is discharged from certain parts, by
stamping these with a weak acid liquor :
after being washed, these are again
stamped, either with the same or with a
different mordant, and dyed with differ-
ent materials ; and thus the most diffi-
cult kind of cloth printing is effected,
where the ground is coloured, and at the
same time impressed with a design in
different colours. By combining these
methods too, and by dexterously applying
to different parts of the cloth different
mordants, by stamps adapted to each
other, so as to form a regular design,
different colours are impressed, either on
a white or coloured ground.

CALK, a genus of minerals, which is
divided into twenty species. 1. Rock-
milk, denominated, by Werner, berg-
milch. 2. Chalk, denominated kreide,
or creta alba : external characters : co-
lour white : occurs massive disseminated,
and as a crust covering flint; fragments
indeterminately angular, blunt edged ;
opaque ; soils ; writes ; easily frangible ;
specific gravity according to Kirvvan 2.3,
but bishop Watson takes it at 2.6 ; vari-
ous specimens will no doubt account for
this and other differences of the same
kind. It effervesces strongly with acids,
and is found to consist almost entirely
of lime and carbonic acid. It constitutes
a peculiar kind of formation; contains nu-
merous flinty petrifactions; and is even
remarkable for being the most general

repository of flint. It is found chiefly on
sea-coasts, as at Calais and Dov .r, and
several of the Danish islands in .'»,• Bal-
tic, as Kugen and Zealand : it otcu"» ulso
in Poland; and several great trs»cls of
country in the south of E'igLuid are com*
posed of it. In some parts of Kent a
cliulk pit is no contemptible estate, pro-
ducing from one to five hundred per
annum and upwards. In the manufac-
tures it is used for polishing and cleansing
metals, glass, &c. and when burnt into
lime, it is of great importance in build-
ing. 3. Lime-stone ; denominated kalk-
stein, which is divided into four sub-
species, viz. compact-limestone ; foliated
lime-stone ; fibrous limestone ; peastone.
The first is of a greyish colour, com-
posed chiefly of lime and carbonic acid,
with small portions of iron, alumina, and
inflammable matter; and is found in the
sandstone and coal formations of Saxony,
Bohemia, Bavaria, Sweden, France, Eng-
land, Scotland, &c. It is used as mor-
tar, when deprived of its carbonic acid,
and in this state also it is employed in
the manufacture of soap, in tanning, and
other processes. It is likewise used as
a flux, in the reduction of such ores as
are difficultly fusible, by means of its
silica and alumina. The Florentine arbo-
rescent marble, a variety of this species,
is, according to Jameson, very valuable
for the purposes of ornament ; and the
limestone of Pappenheim serves for pav*
ing, grave-stones, and sometimes for po-
lishing plate-glass. Of the foliated lime-
stone, the granular is the most important
variety : this is purer than common lime-
stone, is found peculiarly beautiful at
Carrava in Italy, where it is quarried,
and from thence distributed over Europe,
for the purposes of statuary. The white
marble of Paros has been long celebrated
for its fitness for sculpture, and other
useful purposes. Calc-spar is another
variety, of which many of its most beau-
tiful and rare crystallizations are found
in Derbyshire, in Ireland, and many parts
of the continent. The fibrous limestone
occurs only in small veins : the satin spar
of Derbyshire belongs to this kind. The
calc-sinter is a variety of the fibrous
limestone, of which there is a striking
instance in the grotto of Anteparos :
when it occurs in large masses, it is
used by the statuary for many of the pur-
poses of marble. The alabaster of the
ancients is calk-sinter. It was brought
from Arabia in considerable quantities,
and used principally for the drapery of
marble statues. Peastone is found in

CAL

great masses in the vicinity of the hot
springs at Carlesbad in Bohemia. Parti-
cles of sand appear to be raised in the
water bv means of air-bubbles, and be-
come covered with calcareous earth,
which is deposited around them in lamel-
lar concretions of the size of a pea ;
hence the name. 4. Schaum earth, or
foaming earth, found in the neighbour-
hood of Gera, in the forest of Timrin-
gia ; also in the north of Ireland : it is
called by Werner Schaumerde, and is
thought by him to be nearly allied to
slate spar, which is another species, com-
posed almost entirely of carbonate- of
lime. The remaining species we pass
over as of less interest.

CALKING, any kind of military draw-
ing upon paper, &c. It is performed by
covering the backside of the drawing with
a black or red colour, and fixing the side
so covered upon a piece of paper, waxed
plate, &c. This being done, every line
in the drawing is to be traced over with a
point, by which means all the outlines will
be transferred to the paper or plate, &c.

CALL, among fowlers, means the noise
or cry of a bird, especially to its young,
or its mate in coupling time.

The call of a bird, says the honourable
Daines Harrington, is that sound which it
is able to make when about a month old :
it is, he says, in most instances, a repe-
tition of one and the same note, is retained
by the bird as long as it lives, and is
common, generally, both to the cock and
hen. One method of catching partridges
is, by the natural call of a hen trained
for the purpose, which drawing the cocks
to her, gives opportunity for entangling
them in a net.

CALLS are also a sort of artificial pipes,
made to catch several sorts of birds, by
imitating their notes. Different birds re-
quire different sorts of artificial calls ; but
they are most of them composed of a pipe
or reed, with a little leathern bag or purse,
somewhat in form of a bellows, which, by
the motion given thereto, yields a noise
like that of the species of bird to be taken.
The call for partridges is formed like a
boat, bored through, and fitted with a
pipe or swan's quill, &c. to be blown
with the mouth, to make the noise of the
cock partridge, which is very different
from the call of the hen. Calls for
quails, &c. are made of a leathern purse,
in shape like a pear, stuffed with horse
hair, and fitted at the end with the bone
of a cat's, hare's, or coney's leg, form-
ed like a flageolet : they are played by
squeezing the purse in the palm of the

hand, at the same time striking on the
flageolet part with the thumb, to coun-
terfeit the call of the hen quail,

CALL, in sea-language, a sort of whistle
or pipe, of silver or brass, used by the
boatswain and his mates to summon the
sailors to their duty, and direct them in
their several employments. It is sound-
ed to various strains, adapted to the dif-
ferent exercises, as hoisting, heaving, &c.
and the piping of it serves the same pur-
poses among sailors as the beat of the
drum among soldiers.

CALL of the house, in a parliamentary
sense, has been sometimes practised, to
discoverwhetherthere be anyinthehouse
not returned by the clerk of the crown ;
but more frequently to discover what
members are ansent without leave of the
house, or just cause. In the former case,
the mmes of the members being called
over, every person answers to his name,
and departs out of the house, in the order
wherein he is called. In the latter, each
person stands up uncovered at the men-
tion of his name.

CALLA, in botany, a genus of the Gy-
nandna PoJyandria class and order. Na-
tural order of Piperitae. Aroideae, Jussieu.
Essential character : spathe flat ; spadix
covered with floscules; calyx and petals
none ; berries many-seeded. There are
four species, of which C. xthiopica, Ethi-
opian calla, is a plant which grows natu-
rally at the Cape, but has long been an
inhabitant in the English gardens,

CALLICARPA, in botany, a genus of
the Tetrandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Dumosse. Vitices,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx four
cleft; corolla four cleft ; berry four seed-
ed. There are seven species, of which
C. Americana, American callicarpa, is a
shrub from four to six feet in height ;
calyx cylindric ; corolla funnel form ;
germ superior. Native of North Ameri-
ca ; also of Cochinchina, which shows the
impropriety of the trivial name.

CALLIGONUM, in botany, a genus of
the Dodecandria Tetragynia class and
order. Natural order of Holoraceae. Poly-
goneae, Jussieu. Essential character : ca-
lyx five-parted ; corolla none ; filaments
a'bout sixteen, slightly united at die base ;
germ superior, four-sided; nut one-celled,
with a crust that has several wings, or
many bristles. There are three species.
The first is a native of America, the se-
cond of Egypt andBarbary, and the third
of Cochinchina.

CALLIONYMUS, in natural history,
dragonet, a genus' of fishes of the order

CAL

Jugulates. Generic character : eyes ver-
tical, approximated ; gill-covers shut, with
a small aperture on each side the neck :
gill-membrane six-rayed; body naked;
ventral fins very remote. There are
seven species, of which we shall notice
C. lyra, or gemmeous dragonet, so called
from the peculiar form of its first dorsal
fin, the shape of which bears a fancied
resemblance to that of an ancient lyre or
harp. It is a native of the Mediterrane-
an and Northern Seas, and measures
about 12 inches in length. Like most
other fishes, the dragonet varies slightly
in colour in different individuals, and at
different seasons of the year. Mr. Pen-
nant describes the pupils of the eyes to
be ox a rich sapphirine blue ; the irides
fine fiery carbuncle ; the pectoral fins
light brown ; the side-line straight ; the
colours of the fish yellow, blue, and white,
making a beautiful appearance when
fresh taken. The blue is of inexpressi-
ble splendor ; the richest caerulean, glow-
ing with a gemmeous brilliancy ; the
throat black. C. dracunculus, or sordid
drygonet/is nearly allied to the preceding;
a native of the Mediterranean and North-
ern Seas ; both are numbered with the
edible fishes, and are supposed to live
principally on worms and sea-insects.

CALLISIA, in botany, a genus of the
Triandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Ensatac. Junci, Jussieu.
Essential character : calyx three-leaved ;
petals three ; anthers double ; capsule
two-celled. There is but one species, viz.
C. repens, creeping callisia. It is a na-
tive of the West Indies, in low, moist,
shady places. Here it flowers in June
and July.

CALL1TRICHE, in botany, a genus of
the Monandria Digynia. Natural order
of Holoraceje. Naiades, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character: calyx none ; petals two;
capsule two celled, four-seeded. There
are two species, viz. C. verna, vernal star-
wort, or star headed water-chickweed ;
and C. autumnalis, autumnal star-wort.
These are very common in ditches and
standing water, and are sometimes so thick-
ly matted together, that one may walk
upon them without sinking.

CALLUS, or CALLOSITY, in a general
sense, any cutaneous, corneous, or osseous
hardness, whether natural or preternatu-
ral : but most frequently it means the cal-
lus generated about the edges of a frac-
ture, provided by nature to preserve the
fractured bones, or divided parts, in
the situation in which they are replaced
by the surgeon.

CALM, in sea-language, is when there
is no wind stirring.

That tract of sea to the northward of
the equator, between 4° and 10° of lati-
tude, lying between the meridians of Cape
Verd and of the easternmost island of
that name, seems to be a place condemned
to perpetual calms, the winds that do
exist being only some sudden uncertain
gusts, of very small continuance, and less
extent. The Atlantic Ocean, near the
equator, is very much subject, nay, al-
ways attended with these calms.

A long calm is often more fatal to a ship
than the severest tempest, for, if tight and
in good condition, she may sustain the
latter without much injury, whereas, in a
long calm, the provision and water may
be entirely consumed, without any oppor-
tunity of obtaining a fresh supply. Calms
are never so great on the ocean as on the
Mediterranean, because the flowing and
ebbing of the former keep the water in
continual agitation, even where there is
no wind ; whereas, there being no tides in
the latter, the calm is sometimes so dead,
that the surface of the water is as clear as
a loooking-glass ; but such calms are
generally the presages of an approaching
storm. On the coast about Smyrna, a
long calm is said to be prognostic of an
earthquake.

CALODENDRUM, in botany, a genus
of the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Essential character : corolla spread-
ing, five-petalled; nectary five-leaved;
capsule five-celled. There is but one
species, viz. C. capense, which is an ever-
green. Flowers in terminating panicles,
or opposite one flowered peduncles. Na-
tive of the Cape.

CALOMEL, in the materia medica, a
name given to mercurius dulcis. See
MERCURY.

CALOPHYLLUM, in botany, a genus
of the Polyandria Monogynia class and
order. Essential character : calyx four-
leaved, coloured; corolla four-petalled ;
drupe globular. There are two species ;
viz. C. inophyllum and C. calaba, both
natives of the East and West Indies.
They are both lofty trees, ninety feet in
height, and twelve in thickness : leaves
like those of the water lily. In Java they
plant these trees about their houses, for
the elegance of the shade and the sweet-
ness of the flowers.

CALOPUS, in natural history, a genus
of insects of the order Coleoptera. Ge-
neric character : antennae filiform ; four
feelers, the fore ones clavate, the hind
ones filiform ; thorax gibbous ; shells li-

CALORIC.

neap. There are three species ; viz. the
serraticornis, hispicornis, and pygmxus.

CALORIC, in chemistry, a word used
to signify that substance or property, by
which the phenomena of heat are pro-
duced. Concerning the nature of caloric
there are two opinions, which have divid-
ed philosophers ever since they turned
their attention to the subject. Some sup-
pose, that caloric, like gravity, is merely
a property of matter, and that it consists
in a peculiar vibration of its particles ;
others, on the contrary, think that it is a
distinct substance. Each of these opinions
has been supported by the greatest phi-
losophers ; and till lately the obscurity
of the subject has been such, that both
sides have been able to produce exceed-
ingly plausible and forcible arguments.
The recent improvements, however, in
this branch of chemistry, have gradually
rendered the latter opinion much more
probable than the former : and a recent
discovery made by Dr. Herschell, has at
last nearly put an end to the dispute, by
demonstrating that caloric is not a pro-
perty, but a peculiar substance ; or at
least that we have the same reason for
considering it to be a substance, as we
have for believing that light is material.
Dr. Herschell had been employed in mak-
ing observations on the sun, by means of
telescopes. To prevent the inconve-
nience arising from the heat, be used co-
loured glasses : but these glasses, when
they were deep enough coloured to in-
tercept the light, very soon cracked, and
broke in pieces. This circumstance in-
duced him to examine the heating power
of the different coloured rays. He made
each of them in its turn fall upon the
bulb of a thermometer, near which two
other thermometers were placed, to serve
as a standard. The number of degrees
which the thermometer exposed to the
coloured ray rose above the other two
thermometers indicated the heating pow-
er of that ray. He found that the most
refrangible rays have the least heating
power, and that the heating pow£r gra-
dually increases as the refrangibility di-
minishes. The violet ray therefore has
the smallest heating power, and the red
ray the greatest. Dr. Herschel found,
that the heating power of the violet,
green, and red rays, are to each other as
the following numbers :

Violet
Green
Red .

= 16
= 22.4
= 55.

It struck Dr. Herschel as remarkable,
VOL. lit.

that the illuminating power andtheheat:
ing power of the rays follow such differ-
ent laws. The first exists in greatest
perfection in the middle of the spectrum,
and diminishes as we approach either ex-
tremity ; but the second increases con-
stantly from the violet end, and is greatest
at the red end. This led him to suspect,
that perhaps the heating power does not
stop at the end of the visible spectrum,
but is continued beyond it. He placed
the thermometer completely beyond the
boundary of the red ray, but still in the
line of the spectrum, and it rose still
higher than it had done when exposed to
the red ray. On shifting the thermome-
ter still farther,! t continued to rise, and the
rise did not reach its maximum till the
thermometer was half an inch beyond
the utmost extremity of the red ray.
When shifted still farther, it sunk a little,
but the power of heating was sensible at
the distance of 1^ inch from the red ray.
These important experiments have been
lately repeated and fully confirmed by Sir
Henry Englefield, in the presence of
some very good judges.

From these it follows, that there are
rays emitted from the sun which produce
heat, but have not the power of illumi-
nating; and that these are the rays
which produce the greatest quantity of
heat. Consequently caloric is emitted
from the sun in rays, and the rays of ca-
loric are not the same with the rays of
light. On examining the other extremity
of the spectrum, Dr. Herschel ascertain-
ed that no rays of caloric can be traced
beyond the violet ray. He had found,
however, that all the coloured rays of the
spectrum have the power of heating1 ; it
may be questioned, therefore, whether
there be any rays which do not warm.
The coloured rays must either have the
property of exciting heat as rays of light,
or they must derive that property from a
mixture of rays of caloric. If the first of
these suppositions were 'true, light ought
to excite heat in all cases; but it has
been long known to philosophers, that
the light of the moon does not produce
the least sensible heat, even when con-
centrated so strongly as to surpass in
point of illuminatio.n the brightest can-
dles or lamps, and yet these produce a
very sensible heat. Here then are rays of
light which do not produce heat : rays,
too, composed of all the seven prismatic
coloured rays. We must conclude from
this well known fact, that rays of light do
not excite heat ; and consequently that
the coloured rays from the sun and com-
bustible bodies, since they excite heat,.

CALORIC.

must consist of a mixture of rays of light
and rays of caloric. That this is the Case was
demonstrated long ago by Dr. Hooke,
and afterwards by Scheele, who separat-
ed the two species from each other by a
very simple method. If a glass mirror be
held before a fire, it reflects the rays of
light, but not the rays of caloric ; a me-
tallic mirror, on the other hand, reflects
both. The glass mirror becomes hot; the
metallic mirror does not alter its tem-
perature. If a plate of glass be suddenly
interposed between a glowing fire and
the face, it intercepts completely the
warming power of the fire, without caus-
ing any sensible diminution of its brillian-
cy ; consequently it intercepts the rays
of caloric, but allows the rays of light to
pass. If the glass be allowed to remain .
in its station till its temperature has
reached its maximum, in that situation it
ceases to intercept the rays of caloric, but
allows them to pass as freely as the rays
of light. This curious fact, which shews
us that glass only intercepts the rays of
caloric till it be saturated with them, was
discovered by Dr. Robinson. These facts
are sufficient to convince us, that the rays
of light and of caloric are different, and
that the coloured rays derive their heat-
ing power from the rays of caloric w"hich
they contain. Thus it appears that solar
light is composed of three sets of rays,
the colorific, the calorific, and the deoxi-
dizing. The rays of caloric are refract-
ed by transparent bodies just as the rays
of light. We see, too, that, like the rays
of light, they differ in their refrangibili-
ty ; that some of them are as refrangible
as the violet rays ; but that the greater
number of them are less refrangible than
the red rays. Whether they are trans-
mitted through all transparent bodies has
not been ascertained ; neither has the
difference of their refraction in different
mediums been examined. We are cer-
tain, however, that they are transmitted
and refracted by all transparent bodies
which have been employed as burning-
glasses. Dr. Herschell has also proved, by
experiment, that it is not only the caloric
emitted by the sun which is refrangible,
but likewise the rays emitted by com-
mon fires, by candles, by hot iron, and
even by hot water. The rays of caloric
are reflected by polished surfaces in the
same manner as the rays of light. This
was lately proved by Herschel : but it
had been demonstrated long before by
Scheele, who had even ascertained that
the angle of their reflection is equal to
the angle of their incidence. M. Pictet
also had made a §et of very ingenious

experiments on this subject, about the
year 1790, which led to the same con-
clusion.

All the phenomena concur to skew,
that the rays of caloric move with a very
considerable velocity, though the rate
has not been ascertained in a satisfactory
manner. Some experiments of Mr. Leslie
would lead us to conclude, that they move
with the same velocity as sound. The
following experiment of M. Pictet indi-
cates a very considerable velocity. He
placed two concave mirrors at the dis-
tance of 69 feet from each other ; the one
of tin, the other of plaster gilt, and 18
inches in diameter. Into the focus of this
last mirror he put an air thermometer,
and a hot bullet of iron into that of the
other. A few inches from the face of the
tin mirror there was placed a thick screen,
which was removed as soon as the bullet
reached the focus. The thermometer
rose the instant the screen was removed
without any perceptible interval, conse-
quently the time which caloric takes in
moving 69 feet is too minute to be mea-
sured. The velocity of caloric, if it is
equal to that of light, would prove that
its particles must be equally minute.
Therefore/ neither the addition of caloric,
nor its abstraction, can sensibly affect the
weight of bodies.

Caloric agrees with light in another pro-
perty no less peculiar: its particles are
never found cohering together in masses;
and whenever they are forcibly accumu-
lated, they fly off in all directions, and se-
parate from each other with inconceiv-
able rapidity. This property necessarily
supposes the existence of a mutual repul-
sion between the particles of caloric.
Thus it appeal's that caloric and light re-
semble each other in a great number of
properties. Both are emitted from the
sun in rays, with the velocity of 200,000
miles in a second; both of them are re-
fracted by transparent bodies, and re-
flected by polished surfaces; both of
them consist of particles which mutually
repel each other, and which produced no
sensible effect upon the weight of other
bodies. They differ, however, in this
particular: light produces in us the sen-
sation of vision; caloric, on the contrary,
the sensation of heat. Upon the whole,
we are authorized, by the above statement
of facts, to conclude, that the solar light
is composed of three distinct substances,
in some measure separable by the prism,
on account of the difference of their re-
frangibility. The colorific rays are the
least refrangible, the deoxidizing rays
are most refrangible, and the calorific

CALORIC.

tays possess a mean degree of refrangi-
bility. Hence the rays in the middle of
the spectrum have the greatest illuminat-
ing1 power; those beyond the red end
the greatest heating power; and those be-
yond the violet end the greatest deoxi-
dizing power : and the heating power on
the one hand, and the deoxidizing pow-
er on the other, gradually increase, as
we approach that end of the spectrum
where the maximum of each is concen-
trated. These different bodies resemble
each other in so many particulars, that
the same reasoning respecting refrangi-
bility, re flexibility, &c. may be applied
to all; but they produce different effects
upon those bodies on which they act.
Little progress has yet been made in the
investigation of these effects ; but we
may look forward to this subject as likely
to correct many vague and unmeaning
opinions, which are at present in vogue
among chemists.

From this account of the nature of ca-
loric we learn, that it is capable, like
light, of radiating in all directions from
the surfaces of bodies ; and that when
thus radiated, it moves with a very con-
siderable velocity. Like light, too, it is
liable to be absorbed when it impinges
against the surfaces of bodies. When it
has thus entered, it is capable of making
its way through all bodies ; but its mo-
tion in this case is comparatively slow.
Heat then moves at two very different
rates. 1. It escapes from the surfaces of
bodies. 2. It is conducted, or passes
through bodies.

When bodies artificially heated are ex-
posed to the open air, they immediately
begin to emit heat, and continue to do so
till they become nearly of the tempera-
ture of the surrounding atmosphere.
That different substances, when placed in
this situation, cool down with very dif-
ferent degrees of rapidity, could not
have escaped the most careless observer;
but the influence of the surface of the
hot body in accelerating or retarding the
cooling process, was not suspected till
lately. For this curious and important
part of the doctrine of heat, we are in-
debted to the sagacity of Mr. Leslie, who
has already brought it to a great degree
of perfection- To whose work we refer
the philosophical reader for much useful
and highly interesting matter.

Although caloric is incapable of moving
in rays through solid bodies, yet it is
well known that all bodies whatever are
pervious to it. Through solids, then, it
must pass in a different manner. In ge-
neral, its passage through them is re-

in arkably slow. Thus, if we put the end
of a bar of iron, 20 inches long, into a
common fire, while a thermometer is at-
tached to the other extremity, four mi-
nutes elapse before the thermometer be-
gins to ascend, and 15 minutes by the
time it has risen 15°. In this case, the
caloric takes four minutes to pass through
a bar of iron 20 inches in length. When
caloric passes in this slow manner, it is
said to be conducted through bodies. It
is in this manner alone that it passes
through non-elastic bodies ; and though
it often moves by radiation through elas-
tic media, yet we shall find that it is ca-
pable of being conducted through them
likewise. As the velocity of caloric, when
it is conducted through bodies, is greatly
retarded, it is clear that it does not move
through them without restraint. It must
be detained for some time by the parti-
cles of the conducting body, and conse-
quently must be attracted by them. —
Hence it follows, that there is an affinity
or attraction between caloric and every
conductor. It is in consequence of tins
affinity that it is conducted through the
body.

Bodies then conduct caloric in conse-
quence of their affinity for it, and the pro-
perty which they have of combining in-
definitely with additional doses ot it.
Hence the reason of the slowness of the
process, or, which is the same thing, of
the long time necessary to heat or to
cool a body. The process consists in an
almost infinite number of repeated com-
positions and decompositions. We see,
too, that when heat is applied to one ex-
tremity of a body, the temperature of
the strata of that body must diminish
equably, according to their distance from
the source of heat. Every person must
have observed that this is always the case.
If, for instance, we pass our hand along*
an iron rod, one end of which is held in
the fire, we shall perceive its tempera-,
ture gradually diminishing from the end
in the fire, which is hottest, to the other
extremity, which is coldest. Hence the.
measure of the heat transmitted must al-
ways be proportional to the excess of
temperature communicated to that side
of the conductor which is nearest the .
source of heat. The passage of caloric
through a body by its conducting power
must have a limit ; and that limit depends
upon the number of doses of caloric,with
which the stratum of the body nearest
the source of heat is capable of combin-
ing. If the length of a body be so great,
that the strata of which it is composed
exceed ths mjmber of doses of caloric;

CALORIC.

Hfith which a stratum is capable of com-
bining, it is clear that caloric cannot pos-
sibly be conducted through the body ;
that is to say, the strata farthest distant
from the source of heat cannot receive
any increase of temperature. This limit
depends, in all cases, upon the quantity
of caloric with which a body is capable
of combining before it changes its state.
All bodies, as far as we know at present,
are capable of combining indefinitely with
caloric ; but the greater number, after
the addition of a certain number of doses,
change their state. Thus ice, after com-
bining with a certain quantity of caloric,
is changed into water, which is convert-
ed in its turn to steam, by the addition of
more caloric. Metals, also, when heated
to a certain degree, melt, are volatilized,
and oxydated; wood and most other com-
bustibles catch fire, and are dissipated.
As to the rate at which bodies conduct
caloric, that depends upon the specific
nature of each particular body, the best
conductors conducting most rapidly, and
to the greatest distance. When bodies
are arranged into sets, we may lay it
down as a general rule, that the densest
set conduct at the greatest rate. Thus
the metals conduct at a greater rate than
any other bodies. But in considering
the individuals of a set, it is not always
the densest that conducts best : as bo-
dies conduct caloric in consequence of
their affinity for it, and as all bodies have
an affinity for caloric, it follows as a con-
sequence, that all bodies must be con-
ductors, unless their conducting power
be counteracted by some other pro-
perty.

All solids are conductors ; because all
solids are capable of combining with va-
rious doses of caloric before they change
their state. This is the case in a very re-
markable degree with all earthy and
Stony bodies : it is the case also with me-
tals, with vegetables, and with animal
matters. This, however, must be under-
stood with certain limitations. All bo-
dies are indeed conductors; but they are
not conductors in all situations. Most so-
lids are conductors at the common tem-
perature of the atmosphere ; but when
heated to the temperature at which they
change their state, they are no longer
conductors. Thus, at the temperature
of 60°, sulphur is a conductor; but when
heated to 214°, or the point at which it
melts or is volatilized, it is no longer a
conductor. In the same manner ice con-
ducts caloric when at the temperature of
20°, or any other degree below the freez-
ing point; but ice at 32° is not a conduc-

tor, because the addition of caloric causes
it to change its state.

With respect to liquids and gaseous bo-
dies, it would appear at first sight that
they also are all conductors ; for they can
be heated as well as solids, and heated
too considerably without sensibly chang-
ing their state. But fluids differ from
solids in one essential particular : their
particles are at full liberty to jmove
among themelves, and they obey the
smallest impulse ; while the particles of
solids, from the very nature of these bo-
dies, are fixed and stationary. One of
the changes which caloric produces on
bodies is expansion, or increase of bulk ;
and this increase is attended with a pro-
portional diminution of specific gravity.
Therefore, whenever caloric combines
with a stratum of particles, the whole
stratum becomes specifically lighter than
the other particles. This produces no
change of situation in solids; but in fluids,
if the heated stratum happens to be be-
low the other strata, it is pressed up-
wards by them, and being at liberty to
move, it changes its place, and is buoy-
ed up to the surface of the fluid. In
fluids, then, it makes a very great dif-
ference to what part of the body the
source of heat is applied. If it be applied
to the kighest stratum of all, or to the
surface of the liquid, the caloric can only
make its way downwards, as through so-
15ds,by the conducting power of the fluid;
but if it be applied to the lowest stratum,
it makes its way upwards, independently
of that conducting power, in consequence
of the fluidity of the body, and the ex-
pansion of the heated particles. The
lowest stratum, as soon as it combines
with a dose of caloric, becomes specifical-
ly lighter and ascends. New particles
approach the source of heat, combine
with caloric in their turn, and are displac-
ed. In this manner all the particles
come, one after another, to the source of
heat ; of course the whole of them are
heated in a very short time, and the ca-
loric is carried almost at once to much
greater distances in fluids than in any so-
lid whatever. Fluids, therefore, have the
property of carrying or transporting ca-
loric ; in consequence of which they ac-
quire heat independently altogether of
any conducting power.

If we take a bar of iron and a piece
of stone of equal dimensions, and put-
ting one end of each into the fire, apply
either thermometers or our hands to the
other, we shall find the extremity of the
iron sensibly hot long before that of the
stone. Caloric, therefore, is not conduct-

CALORIC.

ed through all bodies with the same ce-
lerity and ease. Those that allow it to
pass' with facility are called good con-
ductors ; those through which it passes
with difficulty are called bad conductors.

Metals are the best conductors of calo-
ric of all the solids hitherto tried. The
conducting powers of all, however, are
Ho^ equal. Dr. Ingenhousz procured
cylinders of several metals exactly of the
same size, and having coated them with
wax, he plunged their ends into hot water,
and judged of the conducting power of
each by the length of wax-coating melt-
ed. From these experiments he conclud-
ed, that the conducting power of the
metals which he examined were in the
following order :

Silver,

Gold,

Platinum,"

>much inferior to the others,
steel,

Lead, J

Next to metals, stones seem to be the
best conductors ; but this property varies
considerably in different stones. Bricks
are much worse conductors than most
stones.

Glass seems not to differ much from
stones in its conducting power : like
them, it is a bad conductor. This is the
reason that it is so apt to crack on being
suddenly heated or cooled. One part of
it, receiving or parting with its caloric be-
fore the rest, expands or contracts, and
destroys the cohesion. Next to these
some dried woods.

Charcoal is also a bad conductor ; ac-
cording to the experiments of Morveau,
its conducting power is to that of fine
sand -2:3. Feathers, silk, wool, and
hair, are still worse conductors than any
of the substances yet mentioned. This is
the reason that they answer well for arti-
cles of clothing. They do not allow the
heat of the body to be carried off by the
cold external air. Count Rumford has
made a very ingenious set of experiments
on the conducting power of these substan-
ces. He ascertained that their conduct-
ing power is inversely as the fineness of
their texture.

Having in the preceding sections con-
sidered the nature of caloric, the manner
which it moves through other bodies and
distributes itself among them, let us now
examine, in the next place, the effects
which it produces on other bodies, either
by entering into them or separating from

them. The effects which caloric produces
on bodies may be arranged under three
heads ; namely, changes in bulk ; changes
in state ; and changes in combination.

It may be laid down as a general rule,
to which there is no known exception,
that every addition or abstraction of calo-
ric makes a corresponding change in the
bulk of the body which has been subject-
ed to this alteration in the quantity of its
heat.

In general the addition of heat increases
the bulk of a body, and the abstraction of
it diminishes its bulk ; but this is not uni-
formly the case, though the exceptions
are not numerous.

Indeed, these exceptions are not only
confined to a very small number of bodies,
but even in them they do not hold, except
at certain particular temperatures ; while
at all other temperatures these bodies
are increased in bulk when heated, and
diminished in bulk by being cooled. We
may therefore consider expansion as one
of the most general effects of heat. It is
certainly one of the most important, as it
has furnished us with the means of Mea-
suring all the others. See PTKOMETER.

Though all bodies are expanded by
heat, and contracted by cold, and this
expansion in the same body is always
proportional to some function of the
quantity of caloric added or abstracted,
yet the absolute expansion or contraction,
has been found to differ exceedingly in
different bodies. In general, the expan-
sion of gaseous bodies is greatest of all ;
that of liquids is much smaller ; and that
of solids the smallest of all. Thus, 100
cubic inches of atmospheric air, by being-
heated from the temperature of 32" to
that of 212°, are increased to 137.5 cubic
inches : while the same augmentation of
temperature only makes 100 cubic inches
of water assume the bulk of 104.5 cubic
inches : and 100 cubic inches of iron,
when heated from 32° to 212°, assume
a bulk scarcely exceeding 100.1 cubic
inches. From this example, we see that
the expansion of air is more than eight
times greater than that of water ; and
the expansion of water about 45 times
greater than that of iron. See EXPAN-
SION.

All substances in nature, as far as we
are acquainted with them, occur in one
or other of the three following states ;
namely, the state of solids, of liquids, or
of elastic fluids or vapours. It has been
ascertained, that in a vast number of cases,
the same substance is capable of exist-
ing successively in each of these states.

CAL

All solid bodies, a very small number ex-
cepted, may be converted into liquids by
heating them sufficiently ; and, on the
other hand, every liquid, except spirit of
wine, is convertible into a solid body, by
exposing it to a sufficient degree of cold.
All liquid booses may, by heating them,
be converted into elastic fluids, and a
great many solids are capable of under-
going the same change ; and lastly, the
number of elastic fluids, which by cold
are condensible into liquids or solids, is
by no means inconsiderable. These facts
have led philosophers to form this general
conclusion, " that all bodies, if placed in
a temperature sufficiently low, would as-
sume a solid form ; that all solids be-
come liquids when sufficiently heated;
and that all liquids, when exposed to a
certain temperature, assume the form of
clastic fluids." The state of bodies then
depends upon the temperature in which
they are placed ; in the lowest tempera-
tures they are all solid ; in higher tempe-
ratures they are converted into liquids ;
and in the highest of all they become
clastic fluids. The particular tempera-
tures at which bodies undergo those
changes are exceedingly various, but
they are always constant for the same
bodies. Thus we see that heat produces
changes on the state of bodies, convert-
ing them all, first into liquids, and then
into elastic fluids.

When solid bodies are converted by
heat into liquids, the change in some
cases takes place at once. There is no
interval between solidity and liquidity ;
but in other cases a very gradual change
may be perceived: the solid becomes
first soft, and it passes through all the
degrees of softness, till at last it be-
comes perfectly fluid. The conversion
of ice into water is an instance of the
first change ; for in that substance there
is no intervening state between solidity
and fluidity. The melting of glass, of
wax, and of tallow, exhibits instances of
the second kind of change ; for these
bodies pass through every degree of
softness before they terminate in per-
fect fluidity. In general, those solid bo-
dies which crystallize or assume regular
prismatic figures, have no interval be-
tween solidity and fluidity ; while those
that do not usually assume such shapes
have the property of appearing succes-
sively in all the intermediate states.

Caloric not only increases the bulk of
bodies, and changes their state from
solids to liquids, and from liquids to
elastic fluids, but its action decomposes

a great number of bodies altogether,
either into their elements, or it causes
these elements to combine in a different
manner. Thus, when ammonia is heated
to redness, it is resolved into azotic and
hydrogen gases. Alcohol, by the same
heat, is converted into carbureted hydro-
gen and water.

This decomposition is in many cases
owing to the difference between the vo-
latility of the ingredients of a compound.
Thus, when weak spirits, or a combina-
tion of alcohol and water, are heated, the
alcohol separates, because it is more vo-
latile than the water. In general, the
compounds, which are but little or not at
all affected by heat, are those bodies
which have been formed by combustion.
Thus water is not decomposed by any
heat which can be applied to it ; neither
are sulphuric, phosphoric, or carbonic
acids. Almost all the combinations into
which oxygen enters, without having oc-
casioned combustion, are decomposable
by heat. This is the case with nitric
acid, hyperoxymuriatic acid, and many of
the metallic oxides.

All bodies that contain combustibles
as component parts are decomposed by
heat. Perhaps the metallic alloys are
exceptions to this rule ; at least it is not
in our power to apply a temperature high
enough to produce their decomposition,
except in a few cases.

When two combustible ingredients and
likewise oxygen occurtogetherin bodies,
they are always very easily decomposed
by heat. This is the case with the
greater number of animal and vegetable
substances.

Having examined the nature, and some
few of the properties and effects of calo-
ric, as far as the subject has been hitherto
investigated, it now only remains for us
to mention the different methods by
which caloric may be evolved or made
sensible, or the different sources from
which it may be obtained. These sour-
ces may be reduced to five : it radiates
constantly from the sun ; it is evolved
during combustion ; and it is extricated
in many cases by percussion, friction, and
mixture. The sources of heat, then, are,
the SUN, COMBUSTION, PKRCUSSIOX, FRIC-
TION, MIXTURE, which see. See also
CAPACITY.

CALORIMETER, in chemistry, an in-
strument contrived by Lavoisier and La
Place for measuring the comparative
quantities of caloric in bodies.

CALTHA,in botany, a genus of the
PolyunUria Polygynia class and order.

CAL

Katural order of Multisiliquae. Ranun-
culacex, Jussieu. Essential character:
calyx none; petals five; nectary none;
capsule several, many-seeded. There
is but one species ; viz. C. palustris,
marsh marigold. This is the first flower
that announces the spring in Lapland,
where it begins to blow towards the end
of May. The variety with very double
flowers is preserved in our gardens for
its beauty.

CALTROP, in military affairs, an in-
strument with four iron points, disposed
in a triangular form, so that three of them
are always on the ground, and the fourth
in the air. They are scattered over the
ground where the enemy's cavalry is to
pass, in order to embarrass them.

CALTROP, in botany, the English name
of the tribulus of botanists. See THIBU-

•LUS.

CALVARY, in heraldry, a cross so
called, because it resembles the cross on
which our Saviour suffered. It is always
set upon steps.

CALVINISTS, a sect of Christians who
derive their name from John Calvin, an
eminent reformer, who was born at Nb-
gen in Picardy, in the year 1509. He first
studied the civil laws, and was afterwards
made professor of divinity at Geneva, in
the year 1536.

The name of Calvinists seems to have
been given at first to those who embraced
not merely the doctrine, but the church
government and discipline established at
Geneva, and to distinguish them from the
Lutherans. But since the meeting of the
synod of Dort, the name has been chiefly
applied to those who embrace his leading
views of the gospel, to distinguish them
from the Arminians. The leading princi-
ples taught by Calvin were the same as
those of Augustin. The main doctrines,
by which those who are called after his
name are distinguished from the Armi-
nians, are reduced to five articles ; and
•which, from their being the principal
points discussed at the synod of Dort,
have since been denominated the five
points. These are, predestination, parti-
cular redemption, total depravity, effec-
tual calling, and the certain perseverance
of the saints.

1. They maintain that God hath chosen
a certain number of the fallen race of
Adam in Christ, before the foundation of
the world, unto eternal glory, according
to his immutable purpose, and of his free
grace and love, without the least fore-
sight of faith, good works, or any condi-
tions performed by the creature ; and

that the rest of mankind he was pleased
to pass by, and ordain to dishonour and
wrath for their sins, to the praise of his
vindictive justice.

2. They maintain that, though the
death of Christ be a most perfect sacri-
fice and satisfaction for sins, of infinite
value: abundantly sufficient to expiate
the sins of the whole world, and though
on this ground the gospel is to be preach-
ed to all mankind indiscriminately, yet
it was the will of God that Christ, by the
blood of the cross, should efficaciously
redeem all those, and those only, who
were from eternity elected to salvation,
and given to him by the Father.

3. They 'maintain that mankind are
totally depraved, in consequence of the
fall of the first man, who being their
public head, his sin involved the corrup-
tion of all his posterity ; and which cor-
ruption extends over the whole soul, and
renders it unable to turn to God. or to do
any thing truly good, and exposes it to
his righteous displeasure, both in this
world and that which is to come.

4. They maintain that all whom God
hath predestinated unto life,he is pleased
in his appointed time effectually to cal^
by his word and spirit, out of that state
of sin and death, in which they are by
nature, to grace and salvation by Jesus
Christ. They admit that the Holy Spirit,
as calling men by the ministry of the gos-
pel, may be resisted ; and that where
this is the case, " the fault is not in the
gospel, nor in Christ offered by the gos-
pel, nor in God calling by the gospel,
and also conferring various gifts upon
them; but in the called themselves. They
contend, however, that where men come
at the divine call, and are converted, it is
not to be ascribed to themselves, as
though by their own free-will they made
themselves to differ, but merely to him
who delivers them from the power of
darkness, and translates them into the
kingdom of his dear Son, and whose re-
generating influence is certain and effica-
cious."

Lastly, they maintain that those whom
God has effectually called and sanctified
by his spirit, shall never finally fall from
a state of grace. They admit that true
believers may fall, partially, and would
fall totally and finally, but for the mercy
and faithfulness of God, who keepeth the
feet of his saints : also, that he who be-
stoweth the grace of perseverance be-
stoweth it by means of reading and hear-
ing the word, medita-ion, exhortations,
threatenings, and promises : but that

CAL

none of these things imply the possibility
of a believer's falling from a state of jus-
tification.

Some think Calvin, though right in the
main, yet carried things too far : these
are commonly known by the name of
Moderate Calvinists. Others think he did
not go far enough ; and these are known
by the name of High Calvinists. It is
proper to add, that the Calvinistic system
includes in it the doctrine of three co-
ordinate persons in the Godhead, in one
nature ; and of two natures in Jesus
Christ, forming one person. Justification
by faith alone, or justification by the im-
puted righteousness of Christ, forms also
an essential part of this system. They
suppose that on the one hand our sins
are imputed to Christ, and on the other
that we are justified by the imputation of
Christ's righteousness to us; that is,
Christ, the innocent, was treated by God
as if he were guilty, that we, the guilty,
might, out of regard to what he did and
suffered, be treated as if we were inno-
cent and righteous.

CALV1TIES, or CALVITIUM, in me-
dicine, baldness, or want of hair, parti-
cularly on the sinciput, occasioned by the
moisture of the head, which should feed
it, being dried up by some disease, old
age, &c.

CALUMET, a mystic kind of pipe,used
by the American Indians as the ensign of
peace and for religious fumigations. It
is made of red, black, or white marble ;
the head resembles our tobacco-pipes,
but larger, and is fixed on a hollow
reed, to hold it for smoaking : they adorn
it with rounds of feathers and locks of
hair, or porcupine's quills, ariB in it they
smoke in honour of the sun, especially if
they want fair weather or rain. This
pipe is a pass and safe conduct amongst
all the allies of the nation who has it
given: in all embassies the embassador
carries it as an emblem of peace, and it
always meets with a profound regard ;
for the savages are generally persuaded
that a great misfortune would befal them,
if they violated the public faith of the
calumet.

CALX properly signifies lime, but was
formerly used by chemists for a fine
powder remaining after the calcination
of metals and other mineral substances.
The term oxide has now taken place of
that of calx. See CALCINATION.

CALYCANTIIKM^E, in botany, the
name of the seventeenth order in Lin-
naeus's "Fragments of a Natural Me-
thod," consisting of plants, which,, among

other characters, have the corolla an3
stamina inserted into the calyx.

CALYCANTHUS, in botany, a genus
of the Icosandria Polygynia class and or-
der. Essential character : calyx one-
leafed, pitcher-form, squarrose, with co-
loured leaflets; corolla calycine ; styles
very many, with a glandulous stigma;
seeds very many, tailed, within a succu-
lent calyx. There are two species, of
which C. floridus, Carolina allspice, is a
shrub which rises to the height of eight
or ten feet. Where it grows naturally,
the bark of this shrub is brown, and has
a strong aromatic scent, whence the in-
habitants of Carolina give it the name of
allspice.

CALYCERA, in botany, a genus of the
Syngenesia Segregata class and order.
Calyx many -leaved ; calycle five-toothed,
one flowered; florets tubular, male and
hermaphrodite ; receptacle chaffy; seeds
naked. One species; 'viz. C. herbacea,
found in Chili.

CALYCIFLORJE, the sixteenth order
in Linnaeus's " Fragments of a Natural
Method," consisting of plants, which, as
the title imports, have the stamina in-
serted into the calyx. The plants of this
order want the corolla: the flowes are
either hermaphrodite and male on the
same root, or male and female upon dif-
ferent roots. The seed-vessel is pulpy,
of a berry or cherry kind, and contains a
single seed or stone.

CALYPTRANTHES, in botany, a ge-
nus of the Icosandria Monogynia class
and order. Natural order of Hesperideae.
Onagrae and Myrti, Jussieu. Essential
character : calyx superior, truncate, co-
vered with a veil-shaped, deciduous lid ;
corolla none ; berry one-celled, one to
four-seeded. There are six species, all
natives of the West Indies and Cochin
China.

CALYX, among botanists, a general
term expressing the cup of a flower, or
that part of a plant which surrounds and
supports the other parts of the flower.
Linnaeus describes it to be the termina-
tion of the cortical epidermis, or outer
bark of the plant, which, after accompa-
nying the trunk or stem through all its
branches, breaks out with the flower,
and is present in the fructification in this
new form. He has distinguished it into
seven different kinds. 1. A. perianth
contiguous to the other parts of the fruc-
tification. .This is frequently called em-
palement, or flower-cup, by English wri-
ters, and to it, as professor Martyn well
observes, should the term eup, if admit-

CAM

led at all, be confined. 2. An involucre,
remote from the flower, as in many um-
belliferous plants. 3. An amentum, or
catkin, from a common, chaffy, gemma-
ceous receptacle. 4. A spathe, bursting
longitudinally. 5. A glume, formed of
valves embracing the seed. 6. A calyp-
tra, covering the capsules of mosses like
u hood. 7. A volva, a membranaceous
covering to the fructification of the fungi.
The involucre is rather a number of
bractes ; and the amentum a species of
inflorescence. See BOTANY.

CAMAX, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character : corolla, wheel-shap-
ed ; filaments inserted between the seg-
ments of the corolla; berry four-celled,
many seeded, all villose. There is but
one species ; viz. C.guianensis, is a shrub
growing to the height of fifteen feet ; it
is a native of Guiana, and flowers in Janu-
ary. The inhabitants and negroes use
the branches of this shrub for wattling
their huts.

CAMBLET, or CAMLET, a plain stuff,
composed of a warp and woof, which is
manufactured on a loom, v/ith two tred-
dJes. There are camlets of several sorts,
some of goat's hair, both in the warp and
woof; others, ia which the warp is of
hair, and the woof half hair and half silk ;
others again, in which both the warp and
the woof are of wool ; and lastly, some,
of which the warp is of wool and the woof
of thread. Some are dyed in the thread,
others are dyed in the piece, others are
marked or mixed ; some are striped,
some waved or watered, and some figured.

Camblets are proper for several uses,
according to their different kinds and
qualities ; some serve to make garments
both for men and women ; some for bed-
curtains ; others for household furniture,
&c.

CAMBOGIA, in botany, a genus of the
Polyandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Tricoccse. Guttiferse,
Jussieu. Essential character: corolla
four-petalled; calyx four-leaved; pome
eight-celled ; seeds solitary. There is but
one species; viz. C. gutta^ is a tall tree,
with a trunk sometimes as thick as two
men can compass, with spreading, oppo-
site branches ; native of the East Indies
and China ; it is very abundant in Siam
and Cambodia, where incisions are made
in the bark, and a great quantity of gum -
mi guttae, or gamboge, is extracted, and
exported into foreign countries ; it is ve-
ry much in use for miniature painting
and water colours.

CAMEL, in zooloey, a genus of quad-

YOL. Ill,

rupeds, of the order of Pecora ; distin-
guished from the rest by having no horn.
See CAMELUS.

CAMELEON mineral, a compound, so
called on account of the changes of co-
lour which it exhibits. It is prepared
from the black oxide of manganese, finely
levigated, and purified nitre, in the pro-
portion of one part of the former to five
of the latter. They are to be fused to-
gether for half an hour at a high heat, in
an earthen crucible. A green mass is pro-
duced, which deliquates by exposure to
the atmosphere, and of course requires
to be kept in a well-stopped vial. It
readily dissolves in hot water, making a
dark green solution. This solution,
though kept in a close vessel, will in a
few days deposit a yellow powder, and
the liquor becomes of a fine blue, which
being diluted with water, assumes a violet
colour^ that afterwards grows red, and
•finally loses its colour, a grey oxide of
manganese being thrown down. By the
addition of a few drops of acid to the
blue liquor, the change to the red is in-
stantaneous,andthe colour is a very beau-
tiful tint, between crimson and pink.

CAMELLIA, in botany, a genus of the
Monadelphia Polyandria class and order.
Natural order of Columniferse. Aurantia,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx im-
bricate, many-leaved ; the inner leaflets
larger. There are three species, of which
C. japonica, Japan rose, is a great and
lofty tree, in high esteem with the Japa-
nese for the elegance of its beautiful
flowers, which exhibit a great" variety of
colours, and for its evergreen leaves, but
has no scent. It is common in their gar-
dens, flowering from October to April.
It varies with single and double flowers,
white, red, and purple. It is also a na-
tive of China.

CAMELOPARDALIS, the camelopard
giraffe, in natural history, a genus of the
Mammalia, and order Pecora. The gene-
ric character: horns covered with a brist-
ly skin, bony and permanent ; in the low-
er jaw eight teeth in front, and on each
side the exterior tooth deeply bilobate.
There is but one species ; viz. the Giraf-
fe, which, when fully grown, has been
known to attain the extraordinary height
among quadrupeds of seventeen feet. Its
head is small; its aspect gentle ; its fore-
parts are much higher than those behind,
its colours arranged so as particularly to
please the eye, and its form, notwithstand-
ing the very great length of the neck, and
a general singular) ty,possessesgreatbeau-
ty and elegance. It is a native of seve-
ral parts of Afric*. living in forests, prin-

CAM

cipally upon the foliage of trees. It is
mild and inoffensive, and in all cases of
danger has recourse, in tiie first instance,
to flight ; when obliged to defend itself,
however, it employs very forcible kick-
ing. Its general pace is a brisk trot.
Giraffes are sometimes seen in small
groups of six or seven. They were first
introduced into Europe at the Circean
games, by Julius Caesar, and in the six-
teenth century one was presented to
Laurentiusde Medicis by the Dey of Tu-
nis. The most accurate descrjber of this
animal is La Vaillant. See Plate IV. fig. 1.
CAMELOPARDALUS, a new constel-
lation of the northern hemisphere, form-
ed by Hevelius, consisting of thirty-two
stars, first observed by him. It is situated
between Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Perseus,
the two Bears, and Draco. See ASTBO-

CAMELUS, camel, in natural history, a
genus of the Mammalia, of the order Pe-
cora. The generic character: horns
none ; six front teeth in the lower jaw,
thin and broad ; the canine teeth distant,
three in the upper jaw, and in the lower
two ; upper lip divided. There are se-
ven species enumerated by Shaw, of
which we shall briefly notice the follow-
ing: C. dromedarius, or Arabian camel:
its general appearance, particularly in
consequence of the dorsal bunch, gives
the idea of deformity, o; even of mon-
strosity ; but in some attitudes, its aspect
is far from inelegant. It inhabits various
parts of Asia and Africa, is found even in
Jamaica and Barbadoes, and is easily do-
mesticated. Even a country, such as Ara-
bia, destitute of water and of verdure,
and under a burning sun, where the tra-
veller seldom breathes under a shade,
and feels lost in a boundless expanse of
desolation,by tne assistance of the camel,
is rendered habitable, and the seat of in-
dependence and comfort. These animals
are trained with great assiduity by the
Arabs. They will carry a weight of
1200/fo.s, and have been known to com-
plete a journey of 300 leagues within
eight days. They will travel eight or nine
days w ithout water, which they scent at
the ciisiance of half a league, and drink
most copiously when they reach it. Deli-
cate food is far from being requisite for
them, and they seem even to prefer the
thorns and nettles of the wilderness ; and
while they find plants to brouse, can dis-
pense easily with- the want of drink.
They have, besides the four stomachs
common to all ruminating animals, a fifth,
in which they preserve a great quantity
of water, unmixed with the liquors of the

body and the digestive juices, and from
which, by the contraction of certain mus-
cles, they make the water mount into
their stomachs and throats, to macerate
their dry food.

Travellers in the East, when hard
pressed with thirst, have killed their ca-
mels, to obtain a supply from this natural
and singular receptacle.

In Turkey, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and
Barbary, camels are almost uniformly em-
ployed in the conveyance of merchandize.
They are considered as living carriages,
and their burden is often not taken off
during their sleep. They kneel down to
be loaded and unloaded, at the command
of their keepers, and are the most pa-
tient, laborious, and valuable of slaves.
Their milk, and even their flesh, are used
by the Arabians for food. Their hair is
extremely soft, and wrought into a great
variety of the most useful, and indeed
costly stuffs. See Mammalia, Plate IV.
fig 3.

C. bactrianus, the Bactrian camel.
This is somewhat larger and swifter than
the former, and has on its back two
bunches. In the deserts bordering on
China it is found wild, as also m the north
of India, whence it is imported into Ara-
bia, chiefly for the use of the great and
opulent. In China a particular breed of
them is distinguished by the designation
of" Camels with feet of wind." Fig. 2.

C. glama. These animals have by some
authors been called the Peruvian sheep.
They are particularly abundant in Peru,
feeding in immense herds on the bleak-
est mountains. Their size is about that
of a stag. They were the only beasts of
burden among the ancient Peruvians, arid
will carry a weight of 150 pounds. This
animal can abstain from water four or five
days, and maybe supported on the coars-
est food, and that in very small quantity.
When irritated, it endeavours to bite,
and ejects an acrimonious and caustic
saliva. Its flesh is fat, and excellently
flavoured.

C. vicugna, or purplish brown camel,
abounds in the highest mountains of the
Indies. It is smaller and more slender
than the former, and tamed only with
considerable difficulty. It will bear small
burdens. Its hair is of admirable softness
and silkiness on the breast, particu-
larly wavy and woolly, and extending
three inches in length. It is wrought in-
to cloth of the most delicate fineness and
beauty. The vicugna and the paco, ano-
ther species of the camel,are both caught
by the Peruvians, by the simple process
of stretching across the narrow passes of

CAM

the mountains a cord, with bits of wool
attached to it at small distances, and
waving1 in the wind, which, by the terror
or fascination it excites, confines them as
effectually as bars of iron.

CAMERA obscura, in optics, a ma-
chine representing an artificial eye,
wherein the images of external objects
are exhibited distinctly, in their native
colours, either invertedly or erect. See
OPTICS.

CAMERARIA, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogyia class and or-
der. Natural order of Contorts. Apo-
cineae, Jussieu. Essential character : con-
torted; follicles two, horizontal; seeds
inserted into their proper membrane.
There are two species, of which C. lati-
folia, bastard mangeneel, is an elegant
tree, about thirty feet in height, abound-
ing with an acrid milky juice ; flowers
small and white ; follicles brown, bivalve
in their structure, but not opening. Na-
tive of Cuba, Jamaica, and Domingo.

CAMP, the ground upon which an ar-
my pitch their tents. It is marked out by
the quarter-master-general, who appoints
every regiment their ground.

CAMPAIGN, in the art of war, de-
notes the space of time that an army
keeps the field, or is encamped, in oppo-
sition to quarters.

CAMPANACEJE, in botany, bell-shap-
ed flowers. The name of the twenty-
ninth order in Linmeus's "Fragments of
a Natural Method." There are two sec-
tions : 1. bell-shaped flowers, with dis-
tinct anthers or summits : 2. bell-shaped
flowers, with anthers united into a cylin-
der. The plants of this order are gene-
rally herbaceous and perennial. Some of
the bell-flowers and bind-weeds are an-
nual ; and a few foreign species of the
latter have woody stalks.

CAMPANULA, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Campanacesc.
Campanulacex, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter: corolla bell-form, the bottom
closed with staminiferous valves ; stigma
three-cleft ; capsule inferior, gaping, with
.lateral pores. There are seventy-eight
species, most of them natives of our own
country, well known in the gardens and
fields.

CAMPANULACEJE, in botany, the
fourth orderjof the ninth class of Jussieu's
natural orders, so called from their affi-
nity to the genus Campanula. Jussieu
gives them the following character : ca-
lyx superior, border divided ; corolla in-
serted on the upper part of the calyx.

border divided ; stamens inserted under
the corolla; anthers either distinct or
united ; germ glandular above ; style
one ; stigma either simple or divided ;
capsule most commonly five-celled, often
many seeded, and generally opening at
its sides; seeds fixed to the interior an-
gle of the cells; stems generally herba-
ceous ; leaves most frequently alternate ;
flowers distinct, or in a few instances ag-
gregate, and enclosed in a common calyx.

CAMPHOR is a principle of vegeta-
bles, which, in many of its properties, re-
sembles the volatile oils. Like them, it
is odorous, pungent, volatile, inflamma-
ble, sparingly soluble in water, and abun-
dantly soluble in alcohol. It differs from
them principally in its concrete form, in
its peculiar odour, in its relation to the
acids and alkalies, and the results of its
decomposition by heat. Camphor is a
principle contained in many vegetables,
especially the aromatic plants, and even
those of our own country, as pepper-
mint, rosemary, marjoram, and others ;
it appears to be volatilized in combina-
tion with their essential oil in the pro-
cess of distillation, and, when these are
long kept, is deposited in a crystalline
form.

The camphor of commerce is procur-
ed, however, from a particular plant, the
laurus camphora* a native of the east of
Asia. It exists ready formed in the wood
of this tree, can be seen interspersed
through it in vesicles, and can be picked
out. It then forms what has been named
native camphor. It is usually procured,
however, by the process of sublimation.
The wood of the stem and branches, cut
into small billets, is exposed with a little
water to a moderate heat, in a kind of
alembic, to the head of which is adapted
a capital, in which straw is put. The cam-
phor is volatilized, and attaches itself to
the straw. It is a little impure, but is pu-
rified in Europe by a second sublimation.
The camphor of commerce, from its mode
of preparation, is in the form of large se-
mi-spherical cakes : when broken, it ap-
pears in fragments of a texture somewhat
striated, having a degree of ductility, in
consequence of which it can be com-
pressed, and is not easily reduced to
powder; of a white colour, and semi-
transparent : a little unctuous to the
feel ; having a very strong, peculiar, and
rather fragrant odour, and a taste which
is pungent and bitter, it is also suscep-
tible of crystallization: when slowly sub-
limed, or when slowly precipitated from
its solution in water bv the affusion of ak

CAM

r.VM

< f>hol, it appears in the form of acicular
prisms.

Camphor, though a concrete substance,
is even more volatile than the essential
oils. It evaporates quickly at the com-
mon temperature of the atmosphere,
losing in weight, and :m- angular frag-
ment becoming spherical ; :uul at a tern-
perature between 100 and 150, it sub-'
limes in close vessels unchanged. It is
highly inflammable, kindles very readily,
and burns with the emission of much
light, and with a dense black smoke,
which condenses into a smooth light char-
coal. Carbonic acid gas is produced, and
a portion of the peculiar acid which has
been named camphoric acid.

Camphor is very sparingly soluble in
water. When triturated with it, it mere-
ly communicates its smell and taste to the
water, which remains odorous, and some-
what pungent, even when filtrated ; but
no appreciable quantity is dissolved. A
phenomenon which has excited some at-
tention is presented, when pieces of cam-
phor are placed on the surface of pure
water. They soon begin to move with
rapidity, and while moving dissolve, the .
solution taking place at the line where
the water and the air are in contact; as
is proved by immersing a cylinder of
camphor in water part of its length : it
becomes excavated, and at length is cut
through, exactly on a level with the sur-
face of the water.

Camphor is abundantly soluble in alco-
hol : the solution is immediately decom-
posed, and the camphor precipitated in
the form of a white powder, by the affu-
sion of water; but if the water be very
slowly added, and merely in such a quan-
tity as to weaken the affinity of the alco-
hol to the camphor, the latter, in sepa-
rating, presents a deutritic crystallization.
It is also soluble in expressed and essen-
tial oils. The alkalies do not dissolve
camphor, or produce in it any sensible
change. Of the earths, magnesia appears
to exert some action on it, as, when they
are triturated together, the camphor is
reduced to a smooth impalpable powder,
which is easily diffused in water. The
action of the stronger acids on camphor
is peculiar, and presents some singular
results.

By distilling nitric acid from camphor,
it is more completely changed, and by
this process is converted into an acid,
which has received the name of campho-
ric acid. The process consists in distill-
ing from four ounces of camphor in a re-
tort, lib. of nitric acid, so far diluted as
to be of the specific gravity of 1.33, the

heat being gradually applied by the me-
dium of a sand-bath : nitric oxide and
carbonic a< re disengaged ; part

ot the campho'- rises in vapour, while
the other part receives oxygen from the
acid.

Camphoric acid, thu« produced, is dif-
ferent from all the known acids. It has a
slightly lic'ul hi. ter taste, aiu1 reddens in-
fusion of litmus. Its crystals effloresce
on exposure to the air ; they are sparing-
ly soluble in cold water, an ounce of wa-
ter at 50° of Fahrenheit not dissolving
more than 6 gr.iins; at 212°, about 48
grains are dissolved. When the acid is
placed on ignited fuel, it emits a dense
aromatic vapour, and is entirely dissipat-
ed. Hy applying heat to it in close ves-
sels, it first melts and sublimes, but by a
higher heat its properties arc changed ;
it no longer reddens litmus, acquires an
aromatic smell, its taste is less penetrat-
ing, and it is no longer soluble in water,
or in sulphuric or muriatic acid. Nitri«
acid heated on it turns it yellow, and dis-
solves it.

Camphoric acid is soluble in the mine-
ral acids : it is likewise soluble in alcohol,
and in the volatile and fixed oils. It pro-
duces no change in sulphur. The salts,
formed by this acid, with the alkaline,
earthy, and metallic bases, are named
Camphorates. Their properties have
been examined by I .a Grange. Their
taste is somewhat bitter : they are de-
composed by heat, the acid being sublim-
ed : and they all exhibit a blue flame
when heated before the blow-pipe. The
alkaline and earthy camphorates are form-
ed by adding the camphoric acid to the
alkali or earth, either pure, or in the state
of carbonate ; the carbonic acid, in the
latter case, being disengaged.

CAMPHOR AXES, ? See the preceding

CAMPHOTUC Acid, 5 article.

CAMPHOR twc, the tree from which the
camphor of the shops is prepared, being
a species of J.aurel. See LAURUS.

CAMPHOKASMA, in botany, from
camphora, a genus of the Tetrandria Mo-
nogynia class and order. Natural orcle.
of Holorace.T. Atriplices, Jussieu. Es-
sential character: calyx pitcher-form.
two of the teeth opposite, and the alter-
nate ones very small ; corolla none ; cap-
sule one-seeded. There are five species,
of which C. monspeliaca, hairy campho-
rasma, is an annual plant, with trailing
branches, extending a foot or more in
length; leaves linear: the flowers are
produced from the joints, and are so
small as to be scarcely perceptible.
Native of France and Spain. The whole

CAM

CAN

plant smells of camphor; it abounds in
a volatile oily salt, and is warm and sti-
mulating.

CAMUS, (CHAIILES STEPHEK LEWIS)
in biography, a celebrated French mathe-
matician, was bom at Cressy en Brie, the
25th of August, 1699. His early ingenui-
ty in mechanics, and his own entreaties,
induced his parents to send him to study
at a college in Paris, at 10 years of age ;
•where, in the space of two years, his pro-
-, was so great, that he was able to
lessons in mathematics, and thus to
defray his own expenses at the college,
without any farther charge to his friends.
By the assistance of the celebrated Va-
rirnon, this youth soon ran through the
• of the higher mathematics, and
ac . nred a name amongthe learned. He
lumsHf more particularly known to
the Academy of Sciences in 1727, by his
memoir upon the subject of the prize
which they had proposed for that year,
viz. " To determine the most advantage-
ous way of masting ships ;" in conse-
quence of which he was named, that year,
Adjoint-Mechanician to the Academy;
and in 1730 he wss appointed Professor
of Architecture. In less than three years
nft rr he was honoured with the secreta-
,-> of the same; and the 18th of A-
pYil, 1733, he obtained the degree of As-
sociate in the Academy, where he distin-
guished himself greatly by his memoirs
upon living forces, or bodies in motion
acted upon by forces, on the figure of
the teeth of wheels and pinions, on pump
work, and several other ingenious me-
moirs.

In 1736 he was sent, in company \vith
Messrs. Clairaut, Maupertuis, and Mon-
nier, upon the celebrated expedition to
moannre a degree at the north polar cir-
cle; iti •,-V.ich he rendered himself h'gh-
ly i'sr- (';!, not only as a mathematician,
but. also as a mechanician and an artist,
branch 2S for which he hud a remarkable
talent.

In 1741, he invented a gauging rod and
sliding rule, by which the contents of all
kinds of casks might be immediately as-
certained. He was employed in works of
importance in his own country, and elect-
ed Geometrjcian in the French Acade-
my. In 1765 he was chosen a Fellow of
the Royal Society of London. On the 4th
of -M;4y, 1768, he died, in his 69th year,
and was succeeded in his office of Geo-
metrician to the Academy by D'Alem-
bert. His works are numerous, and of
great reputation : the principal are, " A
Coin-seof Mathematics/' "Elements of

Mechanics," and " Elements of Arithme-
tic."

CANAL, an aqueduct made for the
purposes'of inland navigation. This great
improvement in the conveyance of com-
modities has arrived at a high degree of
perfection, and enables us to transport
them even over monntains,where it would
appear impossible to preserve a commu-
nication, or rather a continuity of water
carriage with the subjacent plains. This
is effected by the means of locks built of
masonry, each of which serves as the con-
junction of two different levels. The
locks are made only large enou.rrh to ad-
mit the vessels employed in the business,
and have two gates, one at each end.
When a vessel should ascend to a supe-
rior level, the upper gate is shut, and the
vessel being brought within the lock,the
lower gate is also closed, and the upper
one opened. By this means the water
flows in, and the vessel is raised to the in-
tended height. The upper.gate is clos-
ed as soon as the vessel has passed, but
the water in the lock is preserved for
the purpose of letting a vessel down,
which is done by shutting the upper
gate after she is in the lock, and opening
the lower one ; so that she is lowered
gradually to the next level. The water
in all cases is let in or out by means of a
small hatch, making its rise and fall very
gradual; else the gates would be torn
from their hinges by the rush of so large
a body, and the vessel would be endan-
gered. We have instances of about twen-
ty locks all in half a mile's distance ; but
they require very powerful springs to
supply a dee quantity of water. Some-
times canals are raised above the level of
the country ; and we have instances
where one canal passes over another.

The pt-.rt culur operations necessary
for making artificial navigations depend
upon a number of circumstances. The
situation of the ground ; its vicinity or
connection with rivers ; the ease or dif-
ficulty with wh'.ch a proper quantity of
water can be obtained : these, and many
other circumstances, necessarily produce
great variety in the structure of artificial
navigations, and augment or diminish the
labour and expense of executing them.
When *he ground is naturally level, and
unconnected with rivers, the execution
is easy, and the navigation is not liable to
be disturbed by floods; but when the
ground rises and falls, and cannot be re-
duced to a level, artificial methods of ra's •
ing and lowering vessels must be employ-
ed, which likewise vary according to cir-
canntai

CANAL.

In Mr. Donaldson's " View of the Pre-
sent state of Husbandry," it is observed,
that the canals already completed or
forming1 have had wonderful effects upon
the agriculture, as well as upon the
manufactures and general state of ma-
ny parts of the kingdom ; these, and the
navigable rivers, render the carriage of
bulky articles more easy and Jess expen-
sive. The conveyance of manure, fuel,
&c. into districts, "whither, without that
medium, they could scarcely have been
transmitted, has tended materially to the
improvement of these particular districts;
and the ease with which the inhabitants
can export the produce of the country to
otherwise almost inaccessible markets,
while it tends to the same end, has also
considerable effects on the general mar-
kets of the kingdom, and lessens the
number of horses that would be requisite
for transporting these articles from one
place to another.

Owing' to some cause or other, inland
navigations in many parts of the island
have proved ruinous to the adjoining
lands ; while in many others the injury
done to the soil in the districts through
which these inland navigations are car-
ried, by obstructing the free passage of
the rivers to the sea, and by their fre-
quently overflowing their banks, and de-
stroying the crops in the low grounds, is
infinitely greater than any commercial
advantages that can possibly be derived
from them, except by those who'are more
immediately interested. To render ca-
nals, or inland navigations of any sort, of
general utility, sayshe,much circumspec-
tion is necessary in framing the acts of
Parliament : so that, while the commerce
of the coimtry is increased, its agricul-
ture may not be injured. It might, he
thinks, be a wise regulation, that in eve-
ry instance, without exception, all sorts of
manure should be carried at one half or
one third of lockage-dues made payable
for articles of any other description.
Were this point attended to, and minute
investigation made as to the probable
consequences that were likely to result
from granting leave to form canals, and
deepen the beds of rivers, for the pur-
pose of inland navigations, these means
of lessening1 the expense of carriage
would not so often prove injurious to the
best interest of the country, — its agricul-
tural improvement.

It has been well observed by Mr. Mid-
dleton, in his able Survey of Middlesex,
that " canals calculated to navigate much
smaller boats than any which have fallen
under his observation, even down to ten

tons, might be made at a very reduced
expense ; and after certain leading ones
were executed, every man of considera-
ble landed property would find it to be
his interest to make a small canal through
his estate, at least capable of floating
boats of five tons, which would be equal-
ly convenient for bringing manure, and
to carry away the produce. In all the
marsh and fen districts, most of the pre-
sent sewers would only want," he thinks,
" a little cleansing, to fit them for the pur-
pose." And he adds, that " the exten-
sion of canals may become the most pow-
erful means of promoting general culti-
vation. Good roads are certainly very
essential, and he thinks canals are at least
equally so, in an agricultural view. On
the best roads, produce and manure can
seldom be carried more than ten miles
with profit, at the present price of horse-
keep ; but if canals were as numerous as
roads, corn, hay, manure, &c. could be
sent to every partofBritain,withoutusing
more road than the towing-paths, and to
ten times the fprmer distance, without in-
creasing the expense. A general canal-
scheme would, says he, tend to equalize
the price of every article in life more than
all other things put together. It would
afford the cheapest,the safest,and speedi-
est conveyance of every article,thatmight
be too bulky and heavy for stage and mail
coaches. The benefits would be univer-
sal in this island. The inhabitants of Lon-
don and its environs would be infinitely
more plentifully and,cheaply supplied by
canals, than by any system of roads what-
soever. The remoter parts of this, and
every other country, would be placed
more on terms of equality with those that
are near, and every other part of the
island might reap advantages, which may
be foreseen, but which are much too
great for calculation." And he concludes
by remarking, that "canals and irrigation
might be made the means of cultivating-
every inch of this island, except rocky
ground and mountain tops, and these
ought to be planted." He states, that
" of two methods of raising the money
for making canals, the one which seems
to deserve the preference is,the mode by
which turnpike roads are usually provid-
ed for, instead of entrusting it to the ma-
nagement of interested companies. The
latter method is exceptionable, from its
creating a perpetual charge on all goods
sent by that conveyance,without regard-
ing the money expended, or the interest
it may ultimately produce, which is a ve-
ry imprudent bargain for the public in
this country, where population, trade.

CAN

manufactures and commerce, are so much
upon the increase."

CANARINA, in botany, a genus of the
Hexandria Monogynia class and order.
N: tural order of Campanaceae. Campa-
nulaceae, Jussieu. Essential character:
calyx six-leaved ; corolla six-cleft, bell-
form ; stigmas six ; capsule inferior, six-
celled, many-seeded. There are two
species, of which C. campanula, Canary
bell flower, has a perennial root ; stem
three feet high ; corolla resembling that
of a crown imperial, with a yellow eye ;
style club-form. Native of the Canary
Islands.

CANARIUM, in botany, a genus of
the Dioecia Pentandria class and order.
Essential character: male, calyx two-
leaved ; corolla three-petalled : female,
calyx two-leaved ; corolla three-petalled;
stigma sessile ; drupe with a three-cor-
nered nut. There is but one species ;
viz. C. commune. This tree is a native
of the Molucca islands, Banda, and New
Guinea. The nuts are eaten both raw
and dressed by the inhabitants ; and oil
is expressed from them, which is used at
the table when fresh, and for lamps when
stale : bread is also made from them,
cakes, biscuits, &c. for the table.

CANARY bird. See FRINGILLA.

CANCER. See CARCINOMA.

CAXCEH, in astronomy, one of the
twelve signs of the zodiac, represented
on the globe in the form of a crab, and
thus marked (25) in books. See ASTRO-
NOMY.

CANCER, tropic of, in astronomy, a
lesser circle of the sphere, parallel to the
equator, and passing through the begin-
ning of the sign Cancer.

CANCER, the crab, in natural history, a
genus of insects of the order Aptera.
The generic character : eight legs in ge-
neral, sometimes six or ten, besides two
chelated arms ; two eyes, distant ; in ge-
neral foot-stalked, elongated, and move-
able; tail unarmed, and jointed. Ani-
mals of this genus at particular periods
cast their shells, previously to which the
limbs shrink, to facilitate their extrica-
tion. The loss of a limb, with other ani-
mals irreparable, is of little consequence
to these, as a few weeks suffice to repro-
duce one : and in cases of bruise or mu-
tilation, a consciousness of this eventual,
and indeed speedy, reproduction induces
them violently to rid themselves of the
injured member, and to await in seclu-
sion the formation of a complete substi-
tute for it. Some species, which are un-

provided by nature with any shelly cover-
ing, uniformly have recourse to such
shells as they find best accommodated
to their purpose, and in which their bo-
dies are immersed, while their claws are
protruded and unprotected. The corres-
pondence of parts in both sides of al-
most all other animals is far from being
universally observable in these. The
claspers on one side are often of extraor-
dinary size, and on the other slender and
small ; and in some instances the large
arm is obliged to be supported by the
back of the animal, both while walking1
and at rest, from its unwieldy and extra-
vagant size. The genus comprehends an
immense variety of species ; but the
chief division is into the Brachyouri and
the Macrouri, or the short-tailed and the
long-tailed : under the form of which
the crab commonly used in this country,
for tood, is the principal. It is found
chiefly on the rocky coasts. Among the
Macrouri, the common lobster is the
principal, and a well-known specimen.
It inhabits in the clearest water, and at
the base of rocks which project over the
sea. It is extremely prolific, depositing
about 12,000 eggs each time of laying.
The warmth or summer is required for
maturing them. The C. Norwegicus, or
Norwegian crab, is naturally of a pale
red colour, and variegated with yellow
It is longer, and more slender, than the
ordinary lobster. For a representation
of it, see Entomology, Plate II. fig. 1.
C. grapsus, or the streaked crab, is an
inhabitant of the American and Indian
seas. Its general pale yellow is finely
intergperse'd with red streaks and spots.
For a specimen, see Entomology, Plate
II. fig. 2.

CANCROMA, the boat-bill, in natural
history, a genus of birds of the order
Grallae. Generic character: bill gibbous,
shaped like an inverted boat ; nostrils
placed in a furrow, and small ; tongue
small, and toes divided. Of these there
seems to be only one species, though
Gmelin speaks, somewhat doubtfully in-
deed, of a second. The C. cochlearia,
or crested boat-bill, is principally found
in places near the water. It is a native
of South America, particularly abounding1
in the northern parts of it. Perching1
on trees which overhang the brooks and
rivers, it darts down on the fish swim-
ming underneath, which constitutes its
chief food. It is supposed, but not as-
certained, that it feeds also upon crabs.

CANDLE, a small taper of tallow, wax,
or spermaceti ; the wick of which is com-

CANDLE,

monly of several threads of cotton, spun
and twisted together.

There are two sorts of tallow-candles ;
the one dipped, the other moulded : the
former are the common candles.

Tallow candles should be made of equal
parts of bullock's and sheep's fat. The
cotton made use of in the manufacture of
candles comes from Turkey. This is first
wound into rather a line thread, which is
cut into proper lengths, and five, six, or
more united, so as to make it of a fit size
for the candle required. The machine
for cutting the cotton is a smooth board,
fastened on the knees, and the upper
surface is the blade of a razor, and a
round piece of cane, placed at a certain
distance from one another, according to
the length of the cotton wanted. The
cotton is carried round the cane, and be-
ing brought to the razor, is instantly
separated from the balls. The cotton is
then made smooth by pulling, and
spread at equal distances, on rods about
half an inch in diameter, called broaches.
The tallow is melted, and after it is well
skimmed, it is brought to the mould, in
which the cottons are dipped. The work-
man holds three of these broaches be-
tween his fingers, and immerses the cot-
tons into the melted tallow; these he after-
wards hangs up tiH they become cold and
hard, during which others are dipped.
When cold, they are dipped a second and
* third time, and so on till the candles are
of the proper size. During the operation
the tallow is kept to a proper tempera-
ture, by means of a small charcoal fire. An
invention of modern date has taken off
much of the labour of the tallow-chandler:
this consists of abeam with fixed pullies,
round which ropes are made to pass, and
on one end of the ropes can be suspend-
ed six or more broaches, the weight of
which is balanced by weights in an op-
posing scale, and which may be increased,
as the candles become larger. The work-
man by this means has only to guide the
candles, and notto support them between
his fingers. Mould candles are so called,
from their being run or cast in moulds
made of pewter. In these the cotton is
intruded by means of a wire, and kept
in a perpendicular position till the tallow
is poured in, and when cold the candles
are easily drawn out.

Wax candles are made of a cotton or
flaxen wick, slightly twisted, and covered
with white or yellow wax. Of these, there
are several kinds ; some of a conical fi-
gure, used to illumine churches, and in
processions, funeral ceremonies, &c.

Others of a cylindrical form, used on or-
dinary occasions. The first are either
made with a ladle or the hand. To make
wax candles with the ladle: the wicks
being prepared, a dozen of them are tied
by the neck, at equal distances, round an
iron circle, suspended directly over a
large basin of copper tinned, and full of
melted wax: a large ladle full of this
wax is poured gently on the tops of the
wicks, one after another, and this opera-
tion continued till the candle arrive at its
destined bigness ; with this precaution,
that the three first ladles be poured on
at the top of the wick; the fourth at the
height of three-fourths ; the fifth at one-
half; and the sixth at one-fourth ; in or-
der to give the candle its pyramidal
form. Then the candles are taken down,
kept warm, and rolled and smoothed
upon a walnut-tree table, with a long
square instrument of box, smooth at the
bottom.

As to the manner of making wax-can-
dles by the hand, they begin to soften the
wax, by working it several times in hot
water, contained in a narrow, but deep,
caldron. A piece of the wax is then ta-
ken out, and disposed, by little and little,
around the wick, which is hung on a
hook in the wall, by the extremity oppo-
'site to the neck; so that they begin with
the big end, diminishing still as they de-
scend towards the neck. In other re-
spects, the method is nearly the same as
in the former case. However, it must be
observed, that in the former ca^e, water
is always used to moisten the several in-
struments, to prevent the wax from
sticking ; and in the latter, oil of olives,
or lard, for the hands, &c. The cylin-
drical wax candles are either made, as
the former, with a ladle, or drawn. Wax-
candles drawn, are so called, because ac-
tually drawn in the manner of wire, by
means of two large rollers of wood, turn-
ed by a handle, which, turning backwards
and forwards several times, pass the
wick through melted wax contained in a
brass basin, and at the same time through
the holes of an instrument like that used
for drawing wire fastened at one side of
the basin.

CANDLES, safe or auction by inch of,
is when a small piece of candle being
lighted, the bystanders are allowed to
bid for the merchandize that is selling ;
but the moment the candle is out, the
commodity is adjudged to the last bid-
der.

CANDLE berry-tree, in botany. See Mr

RICA.

CAN

CANDLEMAS, a feast of the church,
held on the second day of February, in
honour of the purification of the Virgin
Mary. It is borrowed from the practice
of the ancient Christians, who on that day
used abundance of lights, both in their
churches and processions, in memory, as
is supposed, of our Saviour's being on
that day declared, by Simeon, " to be a
light to lighten the Gentiles." In imita-
tion of this custom, the Roman Catholics,
on this day, consecrate all the tapers and
candles which they use in their churches
during the whole year.

CANDY, or svgar CANDY, a prepara-
tion of sugar, made by melting and crys-
tallizing it six or seven times over, to ren-
der it hard and transparent. It is of three
kinds, white, yellow, and red. The white
comes from the loaf-sugar, the yellow
from the cassonado, and red from the
muscovado.

CANE is the name of a long measure,
which differs according to the several
countries where it is used. At Naples,
the cane is equal to 7 feet 3£ in-
ches English measure ; the cane of Tou-
louse, and the upper Languedoc, is equal
to the varre of Arragon, and contains 5
feet 8| inches : at Montpellier, Provence,
Dauphine, and the lower Latiguedoc, to
6 English feet 6J inches.

CANELLA, in botany, a genus of the
Dodecandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character ; calyx three-lobed ;
corolla five-petalled ; anthers twenty -one,
fastened to a pitcher shaped nectary;
berry three-celled ; seeds two to four.
There is but one species, viz. C. alba, lau-
rel leaved canella, is a tree, the stem of
which rises from ten to fifty feet in height,
straight upright, branching only at the
top. The flowers grow at the tops of
the branches in clusters, upon divided
peduncles. It is common in most of the
West India islands. The $whole tree is
very aromatic, and when in blossom per-
fumes the whole neighbourhood. The
flowers, dried, and softened again in
warm water, have a fragrant odour, re-
sembling that of musk.

CANEPHORA, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der : common calyx tubular, toothed, ma-
ny flowered.; perianthura five or six-cleft ;
corolla campanulate, five or six-cleft ;
fruitpinferior, two-seeded. There are two
species, viz. the axillaris and capitata,
natives of Madagascar.

CANES, -walking) are said by Bradley
to be joints of the roots of a sort of reed,
called Canna Indica. This plant shoots in
joints of about three or four feet long,

VOL. III.

near the surface of the ground, and at
every knot produce great numbers of
fibres, by which it receives its nourish-
ment. The joints are made straight by
the fire, which occasions those shades
or clouds frequently seen in them.
Bradley thinks the cane-tree might be
propagated here, by planting some of the
roots with their knots in artificial bogs,&c.

CANES, rattan, are a smaller sort, brought
from China, Japan, and Sumatra, very
tough ; which, being split, are used for
making of cane chairs. They are the pro-
duce of a reed called rattang malabarica
minor, or lesser rattan. The specific name
is rotang, whence rattan, and in the Ma-
layan language signifies a staff or walk-
ing stick. These, when dry, being struck
against each other, will give fire, and are
used accordingly in some places in lieu
of flint and steel. Being twisted to-
gether, they make cordage of them.
The Chinese and Japanese vessels are
said to have their cables made of them,
which are less liable to rot in the water
than hemp.

CANES venatici, in astronomy, the grey-
hounds, two new contellations, first es-
tablished by Hevelius, between the tail
of the great Bear and the arm of Bootes,
abore the Corona Berenices. That next
the Bear's tail is called Asterion, the
other Chara.

CANICULA, or CANICTJI.US, in astro-
nomy, the same as the Canis Minor. See
CANIS MINOR.

It is also a name given to one of the
stars of the constellations, Canis Major,
called the Dog-star, and by the Greeks
Sirius.

CANICULAR days, commonly called
dog days, a certain number of days pre-
ceding and ensuing the heliacal rising of
the Canicula, or the Dog-star, in the
morning. The Ethiopians and Egypti-
ans began their year at the rising of the
Dog-star, reckoning to its rise again the
next year, which is called the annus cana-
rius. The Romans supposed it to be the
cause of the sultry weather usually felt in
the dog-days, and, therefore, sacrificed
a brown dog every year, at its rising, to
appease its wrath.

CANINE teeth, in anatomy, are two
sharp -edged teeth in each jaw ; one on
each side, placed between the incisores
and molares.

CANINE muscles,, a pair of muscles com-
mon to both lips. They arise from the hol-
low on each side under the os jugularis, in
the os maxillare, and are inserted into the
angle of the lips.

CANIS, the dog, in natural history, a
I

CANIS.

genus of Mammalia, of the order Ferae.
Generic character : six upper foreteeth ;
lateral ones longer, distant ; the inter-
mediate ones lobate ; in the lower jaw
six, lateral ones lobated ; tusks solitary
and incurvated; grinders six or seven,
or more than in other genera of this or-
der.

This genus is distinguished by its vora-
city, and by tearing what it devours. It is
unable to climb trees; can move with
great swiftness ; has the crown of its
head usually flat, with a lengthened snout;
its body very considerably thicker before
than behind ; its claws are long, some-
what curved, but nol retractile. The fe-
male produces many at a time, and has
usually four teats on the breast and six
on Hu. belly. In the savage state of the
dog, his irritable and ferocious character
renders him a dangerous enemy to other
animals; but, when domesticated, his
grand object appears to be to please his
employers, and to convert to their ser-
vice his courage, his swiftness, and all
his striking and valuable instincts. He is
extremely docile, and accommodates him-
self to the manners and habits of those
with whom he lives, with a facility which
furnishes an admirable lesson. His vigi-
lance over whatever is committed to his
charge is connected with a courage in de-
fence of it, arising even to rage. His sus-
p cii ns are perpetually alive : his infe-
rences, with respect to the just grounds
of apprehension, are astonishingly judi-
cious and correct, and he not only sounds
the tocsin of alarm to the whole family
by which he is employed as centinel, but
darts on a supposed culprit with a vigour
and intrepidity, which generally over-
whelm the power of resistance. By the
assistance of the dog, man has reduced
the other animals to slavery. Dangerous
and ferocious beasts are hunted down by
its means. By conciliating, among the
various animals by which he was sur-
rounded, those, which, at the same time
that they abound in energies, are also ca-
pable of affection and obedience, man
has been enabled to oppose and destroy
others, with which he would have been
able to establish no compromise, whose
ferocity is untameable, and whose power
is connected only with ravage and desola-
tion. The training of the dog was proba-
bly one of ihe first objects of the atten-
tion of man, and aided him extremely in
subduing the earth to his unmolested go-
vernment.

The capability of instruction, and the
imitative powers of the dog, have fur-
nished innumerable curious and interest.

ing anecdotes. A Florentine nobleman
possesed a dog, which would attend his
table and change his plates, and carry his
wine to him with the utmost steadiness,
and the most accurate attention to his
master's ncfices.

It is related by the illustrious Leibnitz,
that a Saxon peasant was in possession of
a dog, of the middling size, and about
three years of age, which the peasant's
son, perceiving accidentally, as he ima-
gined, some resemblance in its sounds to
those of the human voice, attempted to
teach it to speak. By the perseverance
of the lad, the dog acquired the power,
we are told, of pronouncing about thirty
words. It would, however, exercise this
extraordinary faculty only with reluc-
tance, the words being first spoken al-
ways by the preceptor, and then echoed
by the pupil. The circumstance is al-
tested by Leibnitz, who himself heard it
speak, and was communicated by him in
a memoir to the Royal Academy of
France.

In the theatre of Marcellus, what many
will consider more probable, but what is
still extraordinary, is mentioned to have
occurred, by Plutarch. A dog was here
exhibited, who excelled in various dances
of great complication and difficulty, and
represented also the effects of disease
and pain upon the frame, in all the con-
tortions of countenance and writhings of
the body, from the first access to that
paroxysm, which often immediately pre-
cedes dissolution : having thus apparent-
ly expired in agony, he would suffer him-
self to be carried about motionless, as in
a state of death, and, after a sufficient con-
tinuance of the jest, he would burst upon
the spectators with an animation and
sportiveness, which formed a very inter-
esting conclusion of this curious inter-
lude, by which the animal seemed to en-
joy the success of his scenic efforts, and
to be delighted with the admiration
which was^liberally and universally be-
stowed upon men.

This genus comprehends twenty-one
species, several of which, particularly the
C. familiaris, 'include numerous varieties.
The following appear principally deserv-
ing of notice.

The C. familiaris, or the familiar dog,
of which the variety known by the name
of the shepherd's dog is imagined to ap-
proach most nearly to the original animal.
Its use is inferible from its designation.
It keeps the ff ock collected, and defends
it from injury. In the Alps, and some
other regions of Europe, it is considerably

CANIS.

larger and stronger than in England. See
Mammalia, Plate V. fig. 1.

Another variety is the dingo, Australa-
sian, or New Holland dog. Plate V. fig.
2. This dog does not bark so readily as
the European dogs: its appearance much
resembles the larger kind of the shep-
herd's dog, audit is extremely fierce and
untractable.

The Pomeranian dog, another variety,
is generally white, and is distinguished,
among several characteristics, by the cur-
vature of its tail, extending very nearly
to a circle. Plate V. fig. 3.

A fourth variety is the Siberian. These
dogs are frequently employed in Siberia
and Kamtschatka, "in drawing sledges on
the frozen snow, and four or six of them
yoked to a sledge will convey three per-
sons with the usual quantity of baggage,
forty miles or more in a day. The exer-
tions of these dogs, however, are more to
be praised than their fidelity or attach-
ment Their perverseness and subtlety
are a source of great vexation to their em-
ployers, who, however, notwithstanding
the malignity and cunning they are thus
so incessantly called upon to counteract,
find these animals indispensable to the
convenience and intercourse of these arc-
tic regions. See Plate V. fig. 4.

The Iceland dog is but little different
from the last, as will be seen by a refer-
ence to Plate V. fig. 5. Its general colour
is black.

For the great barbet, see Plate V. fig. 6.

The blood-hound was, some ages since,
highly esteemed in England, and much
employed in the pursuit of robbers. The
accuteness of its smell is so extraordinary,
that it has traced a man to the distance of
seven miles, along a much frequented
high-way, and through several market
towns, to the very upper room in which
he was taking refreshment.

The Irish grey-hound, now extremely
rare even in Ireland itself, is perhaps the
most beautiful and majestic, as well as
the largest of all dogs. It was this dog
which was principally employed in clear-
ing the island of wolves. It is, however,
unfit for hunting foxes, hares, or stags,
and is kept by a few persons merely for
its beauty and size. Dr. Goldsmith has
seen one four feet high.

The mastiff, another variety, is of a very
strong and thick structure, with a large
head, and the sides of the lips pendulous.
In the reign of James I. a trial of its vigour
and courage was made in the Tower of
London, and three mastiffs being opposed
^o a lion, two were mutilated and disabled.

but the third obliged the lion to hate Re-
course to flight.

The terrier, another variety, is much
employed in unearthing foxes, and to all
those quardrupeds, which are compre-
hended in the class of Vermin, bears the
strongest antipathy. A well-trained ter-
rier is frequently found an over-match
even for the fierce and hardy badger,
This dog is extremely useful as an attend-
ant on every pack of hounds, to compel
the game from its close cover of earth or
thicket.

The chief peculiarities of the species,
of which these few varieties out of many
have been riven, are these. It cultivates
the society of man; has rarely been found
wild ; feeds on flesh and farinaceous
vegetables, but not on greens ; it digests
bones ; urines frequently, holding up its
leg ; dungs upon a stone ; vomits itself
by grass; runs in an oblique direction ;
very rarely sweats, but lolls out its tongue
when hot. The male young resemble the
dog, and the female the bitch. It is ex-
tremely docile, affectionate, and vigilant,
in its intercourse with man ; it eats with
a glancing and envious eye; has a great
aversion to strangers, and particularly to
beggars; licks wounds; hears and dreams
in its sleep ; sets up a howl on hearing
musical sounds ; and bites stones thrown
at it; possesses a most acute s^nse of
smell ; is liable to gonorrhoea; is subject
also to madness, which it imparts by
biting, and in old age is addicted to gnaw-
ing itself. It is regarded by the followers
of Mahomet as unclean.

C. lupus, the wolf. These animals are
found in altnoat all the temperate and cold
climates of the globe. They abounded
formerly in Great Britain and Ireland, but
were extirpated by government's com-
muting the punishment for several of-
fences for a proportionate number of
wolves' tongues, or by the substitution in
Wales of acertain numberof wolves'heads
for a particular amount of money in taxes.
Some lands were also held,on condition of
the occupiers destroy ing yearly a certain
number of these dangerous animals.

In America, wolves are reported to go
in droves,and to hunt various animals with
the most terrific and hidious bowlings,
not scrupling, when urged by hunger, to
attack even the buffaloe itself. To allay
their hunger, it is stated that they will
swallow large quantities of mud. In
Sweden the carcases of animals are pur-
posely laid in their way, stuffed with tree
moss and pounded glass, which render
the repast fatal to them. They are, lik^

CANIS.

the dog, subject to madness, communi-
cated also by bite, but generally coming
on in winter rather than in summer. In
the north of Europe they live much on
seals, and extending their excursions far
on the ice, when that is detached, in
consequence of a change of weather,
from the land, they are carried off into
the ocean, and express the sense of their
dreadful and insuperable danger by the
most bitter bowlings of despair.

There is no animal, whose carnivorous
appetite is stronger than that of the wolf,
and he is endowed by nature with all the
means of satisfying it, being strong, agile,
subtle, and enabled not only to explore,
but to seize and subdue his prey.

By the perpetual war in which he is in-
volved with man, however, he is often re-
duced to extreme difficulties, and driven
far into wilds and forests, where the means
of satisfying his appetite are scarcely to
be found : remoteness from human habi-
tation, in proportion as it adds to his scar-
city, embarrases his subsistence. The
urgency of his wants drives him back to
those dangers which he was eager to
shun, and inspires him often with courage
by no means natural to him, and rising to
all the vehemence of fury and distraction.
He will in these circumstances of pressure
make no scruple of attacking women and
children, and occasionally assault and de-
vour men. The Paris gazette for 1764,
states the ravages and devastation by
one of these creatures, near Languedoc,
to have comprehended the destruction
of no less than twenty persons. It will
devour its own species as well as the
human. It is remarkable for suspicion, for
terror at the sound of a trumpet, for ex-
quisite acuteness of smell, for its endu-
rance of extreme cold and hunger, for
its fearfulness of a cord or rope drawn
along the ground, and for leaping over
fences rather than passing through doors
or gates. When taken young, its sa-
vage character has, by assiduous educa-
tion, been not merely greatly mitigated,
but, in a few instances, completely sub-
dued. The time of gestation in the wolf
is 100 days, being forty more than that
of the dog, which may be considered as a
radical difference between these species
of animals. See Mammalia, Plate VI.
fig. 2.

C. hyaena, or the striped hyaena. These
animals are generally about the size of a
large dog, and abound in many parts of
Asia and Africa. They have been al-
most universally believed to be untame-
able, but several decided instances to the

contrary have occurred. Their manners,
however, are particularly untractable
and ferocious, and truly indicated by
that unremitted gloom and malice ex-
pressed in their countenance. They in-
habit, principally, rocks and caves, and,
shunning the light of day, avail them-
selves of darkness to commit their depre-
dations. They feed not only on prey
which they have themselves killed, but
putrid carcases supply them with a de-
licious banquet, and the bodies of the
dead are often, with most persevering la-
bour, torn up from their graves in
churchyards, where they have sometime
been deposited, and devoured with the
keenest relish. They follow the motions
of contending armies, anticipating, by the
associations furnished from experience,
and which are formed in the inferior ani-
mals as well as in man, the feast to be
supplied from human conflict and car-
nage. When they are first put in mo-
tion, they appear, as is not uncommon
with dogs, to labour under some fracture
or dislocation in their hind legs. This,
however, in a short time totally vanishes.
In Syria, and about Algiers, they live
mnch, if not principally, on bulbous roots,
in the choice of which they are uncom-
monly fastidious. In Barbary, the Moors
will not hesitate to pull the hyaena by the
ears in the day-time, and, indeed, experi-
ence from it no attempt at injury : they
will even enter his cave with a torch,
and throwing a blanket over him, hawl
him out without any inconvenience. In
the same country some small animals
have been shut up with a hyaena fasting,
during a whole day, and yet have been
found alive and uninjured ; but by night,
a young ass, a goat, and a fox, locked up
with one, were destroyed, and, excepting
some of the larger bones of the ass, com-
pletely devoured before morning.

In Abyssinia these animals are nearly
equally active aud bold by day and night.
They abound in every part, and are
scarcely less numerous even than sheep.
Mr. Bruce complains of their being the
plague of his life in that country, the
terror of his night-walks, and the destruc-
tion of his mules and asses, which were,
with them a favourite food. One night,
having, for a moment, quitted his tent,
where he had previously heard some
noise within it, the cause of which, how-
ever, he was unable to discover, and had
ceased to think of, he observed on his
return, in the dark, two large blue eyes
most fixedly glaring on him. A light
being speedily brought, he discovered,

CANIS.

near the head of his bed, ahyxna, with
several bundles of candles in his mouth.
Mr. Bruce immediately struck at him
with a long pike, which penetrated com-
pletely through him, near his heart. The
animal no sooner felt the smarting of
the wound, than he appeared animated
by the most fierce and desperate ven-
geance, and strove actually to climb up
the shaft of the pike, to reach his de-
stroyer. The servant, however, cleft his
head asunder with a battle-axe. Plate
VI. fig. 1.

C. aureus, the jackal. In the warm
latitudes of Asia and Africa, these ani-
mals abound, and no where more than in
Barbary. The jackal is of a light yellow
colour, with black shades about the back
and legs ; and about the size of a mid-
dling dog. In its excursions, which are
chiefly during night, it commits promis-
cuous ravage among the more defence-
less animals, though vegetables are some-
times used for food by it. Jackals fre-
quently assemble in large droves, or
troops, even so numerous as two hun-
dred, and hunt the vast herds of deer or
antelopes which abound in these regions,
sounding the most horrid yells, and pur-
suing their prey till it sinks under the
exhaustion of fatigue and terror. The
feast of the jackals, however, is gene-
rally intercepted, or at least delayed, by
the appearance of the lion, who, roused
by their sounds, and aware that they are
preparing a banquet which he may enjoy
at his leisure, follows their footsteps.
While he gratifies his appetite, these
humble and trembling purveyors await at
a distance the moment, when the lord of
the forest shall have completed his re-
past, and they may safely approach, to de-
vour the mutilated remains he was unable
to dispose of.

It is supposed by some judicious and
sagacious naturalists, that the jackal is
the real origin of the dog. In the struc-
ture of the short intestine, called the
csecum, they both agree, and their in-
stinct and manners are extremely similar.
They both are fond of the society of man,
and approach on being called by their
names. The jackall is easily tamed, and
shows an attachment to dogs; it fawns
on its owner, and exhibits all those indi-
cations of joy, sportiveness and grati-
tude, n-hich characterize the dog. The
jackal and the dog also readily intermix.
The wolf and the fox naturally shun
maul; ml. T!»e native regions of the wolf,
also, are those of extreme cold, which do
not suit the dog ; and the construction of

some of the intestines of the fox, is ex-
tremely different from those answering
similar purposes in dogs. The different
times of gestation, however, in the jackal,
and in the dog, appears no slight objec-
tion to the theory thus advocated. Plate
VI. fig. 3.

C. vulpes, the fox. This animal is ge-
nerally of a yellowish brown colour, with
its tail straight, bushy, and tipped with
white, from the base of which it emits a
rank and fetid odour. The skill of the
fox in the construction of its mansion
ranks it among the higher order of quad-
rupeds. He burrows under firm earth,
and often where the roof of his dwelling
is prevented from falling in by the wat-
tling of the roots of trees. His subter-
raneous residence is generally extensive,
and he provides to it several avenues, for
his convenience or security. Thus, in-
stead of being a houseless vagrant, he
possesses all the ideas and comforts which
attach to a home, and which are justly
supposed to imply superior sentiment
and intelligence.

The fox is not unfrequently observed,
in fine weather, to quit his retreat, and
bask at his full length in the sun. His
ravages are reserved for the night, and
are generally committed at a distance
from his home. He destroys for his food
various species of vermin. Poultry and
young lambs very frequently fall under
his power, where he has secure access
to them. The dung of other animals,
berries, snails, frogs, and insects, are
sometimes taken by him. Of grapes he
is proverbially fond, and the vineyards
suffer very considerably from his depre-
dations. He wastes or destroys far more
than he devours, often hiding large quan-
taties of his prey in thickets, or beneath
the roots of trees. His sagacity to dis-
cern his prey and his enemies is extra-
ordinary. In Palestine, foxes certainly
abound ; but, from the narrative of Sam-
son's fire-brands, might be supposed still
more abundant. The animals employed
by him in that destructive stratagem were
probably jackals, which are at least
equally abundant, and far more easily
accessible. In very northern latitudes,
the fox is frequently black, and affords
a fur more valued than that of almost
any other animal : it has been sometimes
sold from Kamtschatka for 400 rubles.
The fox has been found sometimes per-
fectly white. The arctic fox, found par-
ticularly in Nova-Zembla, is one of the
hardiest of all animals, unremitted in its
pursuit of prey during the severest ri-

CAN

gours of winter. In some parts it is com-
pelled to sustain itself by berries, shell-
fish, or whaiever is thrown up by the
sea. In others, the sustenance of these
animals consists of wild geese, and every
kind of water-fowls, with their eggs;
and in Lapland, particularly, they feed
upon a species of mice called lemings,
which, being migratory at uncertain pe-
riods, induce the consequent migrations
of the arctic fox, who will, in the pur-
suit of this prey, be absent from his na-
tive country sometimes for three, or
even four years. The ground in Spitz-
bergen being eternally frozen, these ani-
mals being consequently here unable to
burrow, reside in the clitfs of rocks, and
two or three are often found in the same
hole. The cunning supposed to be cha-
racteristic of the fox, and which it might
be supposed that embarrassment and
hardship would increase, is by no means
a quality of the variety under conside-
ration, which is indeed rather noted for
its simplicity, instances having been
known, in which the arctic fox, after
standing by while a trap was baited, has
immediately thrust his head into it. The
Greenlanders convert the skins of these
animals, which are light and warm, but
not lasting, to the purposes of merchan-
dize, manufacturing some of the thicker
and harder parts into buttons. They oc-
casionally eat the flesh, and the tendons
are divided by them into slender fila-
ments, and substituted for thread. For a
representation of the fox, see Mammalia,
Plate VI. fig. 4.

CAJHS, Major, in astronomy, a constel-
lation of the southern hemisphere.

CA.ITIS Minor, Caniculus, or Canicula,
in astronomy, a constellation in the nor-
thern hemisphere. See ASTRONOMY.

CANKER, a disease incident to trees,
proceeding chiefly from the nature of
the soil. It makes the bark rot and fall.

CANNA, in botany, Indian flowering
reed, or Indian shot, a genus of the Mo-
nandria Monogynia class and order. Na-
tural order of Scitaminex. Cannze, Jus-
sieu. Essential character; corolla six
parted, erect ; lip two-parted, revolute ;
style lanceolate, growing to the corolla ;
calyx three-leaved. There are five spe-
cies, most of them natives of the northern
provinces of America.

CANNABIS, in botany, English hemp,
a genus of the Dioecia Pentandria class
and order. Natural order of Scabridae.
Urticje, Jussieu. Essential character :
male, calyx five-parted ; corolla none ;
female, calyx one-leafed, entire, gaping-

on one side ; corolla none ; styles two ;
not bivalve, within the closed calyx.
There is but one species, viz. C. sativa.
The uses of hemp are well known, as
well as its great importance to the navy
for sails and cordage. Exceedingly good
huckaback is made from it for towels
and common table-cloths. The low pric-
ed hempen cloths are a general wear for
husbandmen, servants, and labouring ma-
nufacturers. The hemp raised in Eng-
land is not of so dry and spongy a nature
as what we have from Russia, and there-
fore it requires a smaller proportion of
tar to manufacture it into cordage. Eng-
lish hemp, properly manufactured, stands
unrivalled in its strength, and is superior
to the Russian. Like many other plants,
generally cultivated, it is difficult to as-
certain the original place of its native
growth. Linnaeus gives it to the East
Indies and Japan.

C ANN EL coal. See AMPELITES.

CANNON, in the military art, an en-
gine or fire-arm for throwing iron, lead,
or stone bullets, by force of gun-powder.
Cannons at first were called bombardae,
from the noise they made ; they had like-
wise the name of culverin, basilisk. &c.
from the beasts that were represented
upon them ; and the Spaniards, from de-
votion, gave them the name of saints ;
witness the twelve apostles which
Charles V. ordered to be cast at Malaga,
for his expedition to Tunis.

Cannon are classed as field-pieces or
battering pieces ; the former are usually
made of mixed metals, but sometimes of
pure brass ; the latter, with very few ex-
ceptions, are of cast iron. Every can-
non is made by running fused metal into
a mould, and is afterwards finished by be-
ing turned on a lathe. The chase is bored
by means of a strong machine. Some
suspend the cannon vertically over the
borer, making it press downwards as the
borer revolves : others have a horizontal
process, in which the cannon is firmly
fixed on a frame, and the borer approach-
es as the chase proceeds. There is a
large cylindrical projection on each side
of a cannon, nearly in the middle of its
length ; these are called trunnions ; they
serve to support it on the carriage, and
as pivots, whereon a due degree of ele-
vation or depression may be given. The
variation in the elevation is made in field-
pieces, which usually carry balls of 3, 6,
9, 12, and up to ISlb. weight, by means of
a screw fixed to a strong piece of wood,
that joins ^he two cheeks of the carriage,
and is fastened by a loop and bol*. to 1 h^

CANNON.

round knob at the end of the cannon,
called the cascabel. As there is great
force in the powder when ignited by
means of a match applied to the vent,
which communicates with the end of the
chase, the quantity of metal must, of ne-
cessity, be augmented about the breech,
or hinder parts. Thus all cannon* are
fortified in that part ; but battering can-
nons are generally double-fortified, by an
additional quantity of metal, in conse-
quence of the large charges of powder
given, for the purpose of adding to the
impetus or force of the shot's action on
the place to be battered.

Battering-pieces are generally from 24
to 42 pounders, sometimes 18 pounders
are used, but their effect is feeble, com-
pared with that of cannons of a larger
calibre.

Cannon intended for field service are
mounted on a carriage, with two stout
wheels, about four feet and a half high,
on a solid wooden or an iron axle, and
suspended by their trunnions on the two
cheeks, which are as near to each other
as the size of the cannon will permit,
tapering down a little towards the ground,
at a sufficient angle to oppose the recoil,
or run backward, made by every piece
when fired. The cheeks diverge a little,
and are kept very firm in their places by
means of cross pieces called transoms,
which are vertical in and secured by
strong bolts. The cannon is turned about
to any direction by means of a hand-
spike which fixes into the train. The
' piece is transported by raising its train,
and passing the tail-transom, which is
perforated for the purpose, on to a very
substantial iron gudgeon firmly fixed on
the centre of an axle, which has two
wheels rather lower than those of the
carriage. This appendage is called a lim-
ber, and carries a stout water-proof box
full of ammunition of various descriptions,
for the service of the cannon ; it has
likewise a pole, or shafts, whereby horses
are attached, and the piece thus travels
with tolerable ease ; the limber wheels
traversing under the cheeks of the car-
riage.

The modes of charging cannon are va-
rious, but in general with cartridges, over
which wads of spun yarn are well ram-
med ; then the shot, either round or
grape ; and, lastly, a second wad ram-
med home : but in field service, where
grape or canister shot are used, the
whole charge is sometimes made to fit in
immediately after the cartridge, which is
invariably made of serge, shalloon, or
other woollen stuff. Grape is made by

putting many small balls together, so as
to fit the bore of the piece , they are
usually netted to a round piece ot board.
Canister is nothing more than a number
of still smaller balls put into a tin canis-
ter; these are intended for close attacks,
especially among cavalry, or large bodies
of infantry, round shot being mere suit-
ed to distant operations. Ship guns, and
such others as are intended to be station-
ary, are placed on low substantial car-
riages, moving on four small trucks ; these
ere elevated by means of wedges called
quoins. Some are discharged by locks,
on the same principles as those for mus-
quets ; and for ship use are certainly the
safest, and best adapted to a certainty ot*
aim. Brass six-pounders often weigh so
little as 4 civt. but some of the double for-
tified battering cannon amount to full 3
tons each.

A short kind of a cannon, called a car-
ronade, is much in naval use : we have
some that throw balls of near 70 Ibs. :
their purpose is chiefly for close attacks,
when their effects are dreadful : these
slide in grooves on a bed carriage. The
pieces used for throwing shells, which
are hollow balls filled with powder that
explode when the fuse burns into them,
are howitzers and mortars ; the former
are mounted in every respect similar to
cannon, but are very short, and chamber-
ed. These throw either shells or grape
with great effect. The mortar is always
fired at an elevation of 45 degrees from
the horizon, and its range, i. e. the dis-
tance at which the shell is to fall, is de-
termined by putting a greater or less
charge of powder into the chamber,
Shells for mortars sometimes measure a
diameter of 21 inches, but those for how-
itzers rarely exceed 11 inches, and ge-
nerally are from 4| to 8£, or thereabouts.
The point blank range of a cannon is that
distance at which the shot cuts a line,
supposed to be drawn parallel with the
surface of earth, at a distance equal to
the height of the chase of the cannon
when horizontal. No shot goes in a right
line from the muzzle to the object, but
forms a curve often many yards above
the horizontal line. The point blank dis-
tance is according to the calibre of the
piece, and the proportion of powder, and
its quality, used for a charge ; we may
however, state the ranges to be from 400
to 1000 yards.

Mortars will throw shells more than a
mile. The cawiage of a mortar is a large
horizontal bed of timber, strongly clamp-
ed together, and placed on loose sand ; it
should be perfectly level. The breech

CAN

of a mortar is round, und rests in a hol-
low made in the centre of- the bed ; its
muzzle is held up by a curved iron stay,
which being- acted upon by a screw gives
the mortar more or less elevation : the
trunnions are close to the breech, and
move upon the bi-cl.

We shall conclude this article with a
short description of the method of cannon
boring-.

Fig. 1. Plate cannon, &c. in an eleva-
tion of a machine for boring- cannon, and
fig. 2. is a plan of it; the same references
are used in both figures : A is a cast iron
frame to support the bearing for an iron
shaft, B, turned by a steam engine, or
water wheel ; this has a square box on its
end, into which a square knob cast on
the end of the gun is fitted by screws ;
the mouth of the gun is supported on an
iron frame, D, sliding- on the two bed
beams, E, E, and can be fixed at any place
by screws ; it has also screws to elevate
or depress the brass which forms the
bearing for the gun ; F is the boring bar,
fastened at its end to a large block, G,
running on the bed beams with small
wheels : H is a rack fastened by its ends
to puppets wedged on the bed, passing
through the block G : a pinion which
works in this rack is attached to the
block G, and its spindle has a wheel, I,
with pins projecting from it : K is a bar
going between these pins, and carrying a
weight which turns the pinion, and forces
the block G, and the boring bar, towards
the gun. When the weight reaches the
ground it must be lifted up, and its lever,
K, hooked between two fresh pins of the
wheel.

CANNON, with letter-founders and prin-
ters, a large sized letter distinguished by
this name.

CANNONADE, in marine affairs, is the
application of artillery to the purposes of
naval war, or the direction of its efforts
against some distant objects intended to
be seized or destroyed, as a ship, battery,
fortress, &c.

CANNULA, in surgery, a tube made of
different metals, principally of silver and
lead, but sometimes of iron.

CANOE, a small boat, made of the
trunk of a tree, bored hollow, and some-
times also of pieces of bark, sewed toge-
ther. It is used by the natives of Ame-
rica to go a fishing in the sea, or upon
some other expedition, either by sea, or
upon the rivers and lakes.

CANON, commonly called prebendary,
a person who possesses a prebend, or re-
venue allotted for the performance of di-
vine service in a cathedral or collegiate

church. Originally canons were only
priests, or inferior ecclesiastics, who liv-
ed in community, residing near the cathe-
dral church, to assist the bishop, depend-
ing entirely on his will, supported by the
revenues of his bishopric, and living in
the same house as his domestics or coun-
sellors, &c. By degrees, these commu-
nities of priests, shaking off their de-
pendence, formed separate bodies; in
time they freed themselves from their
rules, and at length ceased to live in a
community. It is maintained that the
colleges of canons, which have been in-
troduced into each cathedral, were not in
the 'ancient church, but are of modern
appointment.

CANON, in an ecclesiastical sense, a law,
rule, or regulation of the policy and dis-
cipline of a church, made by councils,
either general, national, or provincial.

CANON of scripture, a catalogue or list
of the inspired writings, or such books of
the bible as are called canonical ; because
they are in the number of those books
which are looked upon as sacred, in op-
position to those which are either not ac-
knowledged as divine books, or are re-
jected as heretical and spurious, and are
called apocryphal. This canon may be
considered as Jewish and Christian, with
respect to the sacred writings acknow-
ledged as such by the Jews, and those ad-
mitted by the Christians.

CANON, in music, a short composition
of two or more parts, in wiiich one leads,
and the other follows ; or it is a line of
any length, shewing, by its divisions, how
musical intervals are distinguished, ac-
cording to the ratios, or proportions, that
the sounds terminating the intervals
bear one to another, when considered ac-
cording to their degree of being acute or
grave.

CANON, in arithmetic, algebra, &c. is a
rule to solve all things of the same nature
with the present inquiry ; thus, every last
step of an equation in algebra is such a
canon ; and, if turned into words, is a
rule to solve all questions of the same
nature with that proposed. Tables of
logarithms, artificial sines and tangents,
are called likewise by the name of canon.

CANON law. a collection of ecclesiasti-
cal laws, serving as the rule and measure
of church government.

CANONS of the apostles, a collection of
ecclesiastical laws, which, though very
ancient, were not left us by the apostles.
It is true, they were sometimes called
apostolic canons ; but this means no more
than that they were made by bishops, who
lived soon after the apostles, and were

CAN-

sailed apostolical men. They consist of
regulations, which agree with the disci-
pline of the second and third centuries :
the Greeks generally count eighty-five,
but the Latins receive only fifty, nor do
they observe all these.

CANONICAL, something belonging
to, or partaking of, the nature of a canon :
thus we read of canonical obedience,
which is that paid by the inferior clergy
to their superiors, agreeably to the canon
law.

CANOPUS, in astronomy, a star of the
first magnitude in the rudder of Argo,
a constellation of the southern hemi-
sphere.

CANSTERA, in botany, a genus of the
Tetrandria Monogynia class and order.
Calyx ventricose, four-toothed; no co-
rolla; nectary four-leaved, surrounding
the base of the germ ; berry one-celled,
one-seeded, superior. One species, C.
scandens, native of India.

CANTATA, in music, a song or com-
position, intermixed with recitatives, airs,
and different movements, chiefly intend-
ed for a single voice, with a thorough
base, though sometimes for other instru-
ments. The cantata, when performed
with judgment, has something in it very
agreeable, the variety of the movements
not clogging the ear, like other compo-
sitions. It was first used in Italy, then in
France, whence it passed to us.

CANTEEN, a small vessel made of tin-
plate or wood, in which soldiers, when
on their march, or in the field, carry their
liquor. They are cylindrical like barrels,
7^ inches diameter, and about four inch-
es deep, holding three pints.

CANTHARIDES, in the Materia Me-
dica, are insects used to raise blisters.
They differ in their size, shape, and co-
lour ; the largest are about an inch long.
Some are of a pure azure colour, others
of that of pure gold, and others again
have a mixture of gold and azure colours,
all brilliant and extremely beautiful.
These insects are more common in hot
countries, though they are occasionally
to be met with in all parts of Europe, at
some seasons of the year; particularly
among wheat and on meadows, upon the
leaves of the ash, the poplar, the willow,
Sec. Such numbers of these insects are
sometimes together in the air, that they
appear like swarms of bees ; they have
likewise a vc -v >:^reeable smell, which
is a guide for ~ror-.se who make it their
business to cute a them. Those who col-
lect them, tie tnem in a bag or piece of
linen cloth, that has been well worn, up-
«n which they are killed with the va-

VOL. III.

pours of hot vinegar, and dried in the
sun, and kept in boxes. When dried,
they are so light, that fifty of them will
scarcely weigh a drachm. The Sicilian
cantharides, and particularly those of
Etna, are reckoned better than those of
Spain. See MATERIA MEDICA and PHAR-
MACY.

CANTHARIS, in natural history, a ge-
nus of insects of the order Coleoptera,
Generic character ; antennae filiform ;
thorax mostly margined, shorter than the
head ; shells flexile ; sides of the abdo-
men edged with folded papillae. There
are more than a hundred species enume-
rated, which are separated into three di-
visions ; A. four feelers, hatchet-shaped :
B. feelers filiform, the last joint setace-
ous : C. fore-feelers projecting, the last
joint but one with a large ovate cleft ap-
pendage, the last joint ovate, acute. This
division is denominated Lymexylon. The
whole genus, excepting the last division,
which in the grub and perfect state feeds
on green wood, is most rapacious, prey-
ing on other insects, and even on its own
tribe : C. bipustulata is a very beautiful
insect, of a slender and cylindric shape ;
its colour is a very dark, but elegant,
gilded green, with the tips of the wing-
shells red, and on each side the thorax,
a little below the setting on the wing1-
shells, is a triple vesicle, of a bright red
colour, extensile or retractile at the plea-
sure of the insect, and which, if accurate-
ly examined by the microscope, will ge-
nerally be found to exhibit an alternate
inflation and contraction, resembling
that of the lungs in the larger animals.
This species is found during the summer
on various plants, and particularly on net-
tles.

CANTHIUM, in botany, a genus of the
Tetrandria Monogynia class and order.
Calyx four-toothed, superior; corolla
one-petalled, with a short inflated tube,,
and four-parted border; the mouth
downy ; drupe two-celled, with a one-
celled nut in each. One species, C. par-
viflorum, found in Coromandel.

CANTICLES, or the Song of Songs, in
biblical history, a Hebrew mode of ex-
pression to denote a song superlatively
excellent in style and sentiment. Of this
ancient poem the author is asserted, by
the unanimous voice of antiquity, to have
been Solomon, and this tradition is cor-
roborated by many internal marks of au-
thenticity. In the very first verse it is
said to belong to Solomon : he is the sub-
ject of the piece, and the principal actor
in the conduct of it. Though the Song
of Songs comes down to us recommended

CANTICLES.

by the voice of antiquity, its divine au-
thority has been called in question by
many writers in modern days. Whiston
thinks it a dissolute loose song-, composed
by Solomon when advanced in years,
and degenerate in practice ; and that
therefore it ought to be excluded from
the canon of the sacred books. Taken
indeed in its primary and literal sense, it
must be considered as describing- a royal
marriage, and may therefore be denomi-
nated an epijthalamium, or hymeneal
song. The celebrated Michselis sup-
posed that the object of it was, to teach
God's approbation of marriage. But the
ideas of Harmer appear much more ra-
tional ; who, though unwilling to give it
the name of epithalamium, thinks it a
marriage song, to be explained by com-
positions of a similar nature in eastern
countries. " What can be more likely,"
says he, "to lead us into the literal sense
of an ancient nQptial poem, than the com-
paring it with similar modern produc-
tions of the east, along with antique Jew-
ish compositions of the same kind ?" Bos-
suet, bishop of Meaux, was of opinion
that this song was to be explained by the
consideration, that the Jews were wont
to celebrate their nuptials for seven days
together, distinguished from each other
by different solemnities ; and this notion
has been adopted by the author of "A
new Translation of Solomon's Songs, with
a Commentary and Annotations." The
principal objection to this opinion is, that
the conduct of the poem does not admit
of such a distribution ; and the distin-
guishing each day by some distinct cere-
mony is a mere supposition, unsupported
by fact. The elegant and learned bishop
Lowth devotes two of his Prxlectiones
to an examination of this poem, and he
determines it, with Bossuet,tobe a sacred
drama, though deficient in some of the
essential requisites of dramatic compo-
sition. Sir William Jones, from his know-
ledge of eastern poetry, was led to com-
pare some parts of it with similar pro-
ductions among the Arabians, and de-
livers it as his opinion, that it is to be
classed with the Hebrew idyls.

Supported by the high authority of this
illustrious scholar, Mr. M. Good, in an
elegant metrical version with which he
has favoured the public, considers the
Song of Songs as forming, not one con-
tinued and individual poem, but a series
of poems, each distinct and independent
of the other; and he denominates them
sacred idyls. "The Song of Songs," he
says, " cannot be one connected epitha-
1'amiuiTi, since the transitions are too ab-

rupt for the wildest flights of the Orien-
tal Muse, and evidently imply a variety of
openings and transitions; while, as a re-
gular drama, it is deficient in every re-
quisite that could give it such a classifi-
cation." It has been also regarded as a
par-ible in the form of a drama, in proof of
which, we are told, First, when closely
examined, it will appear to possess all the
essential qualities of a drama. The mar-
riage of Solomon with the daughter of
Pharaoh, (as related 1 Kings i. 1,) apoli-
tical event, which, from the personages
concerned in it, would be interesting to
to the Jewish nation, was, as such, proper
to furnish the fable of it. The writer is
entirely left behind the curtain, and the
whole of the composition is brought for-
ward before the reader in parts between
the speakers. The dramatis persona are,
Solomon, the bride, her attendants, and
the virgins of Jerusalem. It should be
observed, though the fact has indeed
been overlooked by the critics, that all
advance is made by the lady herself. She
comes to his palace, unfetched, and ap-
parently unsolicited Finding him not
there, she goes in search of him, intreats
to be received into his embrace ; and
when without denying, he eludes her en-
treaties, she pursues him in the ardour of
her affection almost beyond the bounds
of female delicacy and modesty. On the
contrary, the royal spouse is cold at heart,
and distant, prone to recede, and to in-
trigue with his favourite concubines, but
anxious to conceal his indifference and in-
fidelity under laboured encomiums on the
beauty of his spouse. The action is com-
plete, possessing a beginning, a middle,
and an end, and composed of scenes, the
shifting of which, if observed by a modern
reader, as by an ancient spectator, would
have preserved the conduct of the piece
uniform and consistent. The plot, it
must be allowed, is very simple, the in-
tricacies of it arising only from those un-
forseen impediments which were thrown
by rival beauties in the way of the royal
bride, and which threatened to deprive her
of the object of her attachment. The ca-
tastrophe is the triumph of honourablelove
over the allurements of seduction, and the
security of virtuous enjoyment over the
torments of jealousy and illicit fruition. Se-
condly, considered as a parable; like other
parables, while it conveysa literal sense in-
teresting and appropriate, it conveys like-
wise a religious lesson of great impor-
tance. Now the method of decyphering
a fable or parable is, not by seeking, un-
der the veil of the allegory, certain max-
ims of recondite wisdom, which bear no

CAN

GAN

resemblance to the literal sense, but by
tacts generally known and fully under-
stood : nor is the interpretation to be
deemed true, unless, as in the case of
the parable of Nathan, or that of the
sower, there subsists an obvious and
characteristic analogy between the sim-
ple and the metaphorical acceptation.
On this principle, it is apprehended that,
in the parable of the Canticles, the bride
means the Jewish religion, and the royal
spouse the Jewish nation, represented
under the name and person of their ruler
and chief; and the object of it is, to deli-
neate, under images borrowed from the
connubial state, the conduct of the Is-
raelites at large, and that of Solomon in
particular, in respect of their knowledge
and worship of Jehovah. In proof of this
position, it would be necessary to enter
farther into the subject than our limits
will allow : the reader is therefore refer-
red, for a justification of this theory, to
Rees's New Cyclopedia.

CANTO, in music, the treble, or, at
least, the higher part of a piece.

CANTON, (JOHN), in biography, an
ingenious natural philosopher, was born
at Stroud, in Gloucestershire, in 1718 ;
and was placed, when young, under the
care of Mr. Davis, an able mathematician
of that place, with whom he had learned
both vulgar and decimal arithmetic before
he was quite nine years of age. He next
proceeded to the higher parts of the ma-
thematics, and particularly to algebra
and astronomy, in which he had made a
considerable progress, when his father
took him from school and set him to learn
his own business, which was that of a
broad-cloth weaver. All his leisure time
was devoted to the assiduous cultivation
of astronomical science ; by which he was
soon able to calculate eclipses, and to
construct various kinds of sun-dials, even
at times when he ought to have slept, be-
ing done without the knowledge and con-
sent of his father, who feared that such
studies might injure his health. It was
duringthis prohibition,and at these hours,
that he computed, and cut upon stone,
with no better an instrument than a com-
mon knife, the lines of a large upright
sun-dial, on which, beside the hour of the
day, were shewn the sun's rising, his place
inthe ecliptic,and some other particulars.
AVhen this was finished, and made known
to his father, he permitted it to be placed
against the front of his house, where it
excited the admiration of several neigh-
bouring gentlemen,andintro(luced young
Canton to their acquaintance, which was

followed by the offer of the use of their
libraries. In the library of one of these
gentlemen he found Martin's Philosophi-
cal Grammar, which was the first book
that gave him a taste for natural philoso-
phy. In the possession of another gen-
tleman he saw a pair of globes ; a circum-
stance that afforded him great pleasure,
from the great ease with which he could
solve those problems that he had hitherto
been accustomed to compute.

Among other persons with whom he
became acquainted in early life was Dr.
Henry Miles, of Tooting, who, perceiving
that young Canton possessed abilities too
promising to be confined within the nar-
row limits of a country town, prevailed
on his father to permit him to come up to
London. Accordingly he arrived at the
metropolis the 4th o'f March 1737, and
resided with Dr. Miles at Tooting till the
6th of May following, when he articled
himself, for the term of five years, as a
clerk to Mr. Samuel Watkins, master of
the academy in Spital Square. In this
situation, his ingenuity, diligence, and
prudence, were so distinguished, that on
the expiration of his clerkship, in May,
.1742, he was taken into partnership with
Mr. Watkins for three years ; which gen-
tleman he afterwards succeeded in the
school, and there continued during the
remainder of his life.

Towards the end of 1745, electricity
received a great improvement by the dis-
covery of the famous Leyden phial. This
event turned the thoughts of most of the
philosophers of Europe to that branch of
natural philosophy ; and our author, who
was one of the first to repeat and to pur-
sue the experiment, found his endeavours
rewarded by many notable discoveries.
Towards the end of 1749, he was en-
gaged with his friend, the late ingenious
Benjamin Robins, in making experiments
to determine the height to which rockets
may be made to ascend, and at what dis-
tance their light may be seen. In 1750
was read at the Royal Society, Mr. Can-
ton's " Method of making Artificial Mag-
nets, without the use of, and yet far supe-
rior to, any natural ones." This paper
procured him the honour of being elected
a member of the Society, and the present
of their gold medal. The same year he
was complimented with the degree of A.
M. by the University of Aberdeen. 'And
in 1751 he was chosen one of the council
of the Royal Society ; an honour which
was twice repeated afterwards.

In 1752, Mr Canton was so fortunate
as to be the first person in England, who,

CAN

CAO

by attracting the electric fire from the
clouds during a thunder-storm, verified
Dr. Franklin's hypothesis of the similari-
ty o lightning and electricity. Next year
his paper, entitled «' Electrical Experi-
ments, with an Attempt to account for
their several Phenomena," was read at
the Royal Society. In the same paper
Mr. Canton mentioned his having disco-
vered, by many experiments, that some
clouds were in a positive, and some in a
negative state of electricity : a discovery
which was also made by Dr. Franklin in
America much about the same time.
This circumstance, together with our
author's cdnstant defence of the doctor's
hypothesis, induced that excellent philo-
sopher, on his arrival in England, to pay
Mr. Canton a visit, and gave rise to a
friendship which ever after continued
between them. Mr. Canton was a con-
tributor to the Philosophical Transac-
tions, and, among many other papers, he
sent, in 1765, an account of the transit of
Venus of the 6th of June that year, ob-
served in Spital Square. On the loth of
December, the same year, another curi-
ous addition was made by him to philo-
sophical knowledge, in a paper, entitled
"Experiments to prove that Water is
not incompressible." And on Nov. 8, the
year following, were read before the So-
ciety, his farther "Experiments and Ob-
servations on the Compressibility of Wa-
ter, and some other fluids." These expe-
riments are a complete refutation of the
famous Florentine experiment, which so
many philosophers have mentioned as a
proof of the incompressibility of water.
For this communication he had a second
time the Society's prize gold medal. Mr.
Canton was a contributor to many other
publications, particularly to the Gentle-
man's Magazine. In every period of his
life he was an ardent promoter of useful
science ; and while philosophy lives, the
name of Canton will not be forgotten.
He died of the dropsy, in his 54th year,
on the 22d of March, 1/72.

CANTONING, in the military art, is
the allotting distinct and separate quar-
ters to each regiment of an army ; the
town where they are quartered being di-
vided into so many cantons, or divisions,
as there are regiments.

CANTUA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
Calyx three to five-cleft ; corolla funnel-
form ; stigma three-cleft ; capsule three-
celled, three-valved many seeded ; seeds
winged. There are four species, natives
«f America.

CANVASS, in commerce, a very clear
unbleached cloth of hemp, or flax, wove
very regularly in little squares. It is
used for working tapestry with the
needle, by passing the threads of gold,
silver, silk, or wool, through the inter-
vals or squares. This also is the name
of a coarse cloth of hemp, unbleached,
somewhat clear, which serves to cover
women's stays, also to stiffen men's
clothes, and to make some other of their
wearing apparel, &c. It is likewise the
name of a very coarse cloth made of
hemp, unbleached, serving to make
towels, and answering other domestic
purposes. It is also used to make sails
for shipping, 8cc.

CAOUTCHOUC, or, as it is usually,
though improperly named, elastic gum,
is a vegetable matter, which, in several
of its physical qualities, as well as in its
chemical relations, has some similarity to
vegetable gluten, and which so far agrees
both with it and albumen, as to approach
in the nature of its composition to animal
matter.

The substance to which the name of
caoutchouc, or elastic gum, has been
more particularly given, was brought
from Spanish America, in the form of
hollow spheres or bottles, in which state
it is still imported into Europe ; it was
evident, therefore, that it had undergone
some artificial preparation. Condamine
gave the information, that it is the inspis-
sated juice of a tree belonging to the
family of the Euphorbia, which has since
received the botanical name of Havea
guianensis, or Havea caoutchouc. Inci-
sions are made in the bark of this tree:
a milky juice exudes, which is collected.
It is applied in successive coatings over
a mould of clay ; is dried up by exposure
to the sun, and afterwards by being placed
in the smoke from burning fuel ; when
dry, the clay mould is crushed, and the
fragments extracted, and in this manner
the spherical bottles are formed. It has
since been discovered, that caoutchouc is
not exclusively the produce of this vege-
table ; but that it is furnished likewise by
other plants, either perfectly the same,
or with very slight variations of properties.
It is obtained in large quantity from the
Jatropha elastica, a native likewise of
different provinces of South America.
Fourcroy procured specimens of the
juice of the caoutchouc, in the state in
which it exists previous to its inspissa-
tion, from the Island of Bourbon, from
Cayenne, and the Brazils, and examined

CAO

CAP

its properties. From experiments he con-
cluded, that caoutchouc exists ready form-
ed in the juice of the tree, and is capable
of being separated in the concrete form ;
but that a portion also exists, not suffici-
ently perfect to be deposited with its
elastic property ; that it acquires this, to-
gether with its inspissation, from the ac-
tion of oxygen; and that, by this opera-
tion, exposure to the atmosphere influ-
ences the concretion of caoutchouc in the
usual process in which it is brought to
the solid form.

The purest caoutchouc Fourcroy sup-
poses to be that which separates sponta-
neously from the juice in close vessels. It
is white, or of a slight fawn colour. The
properties of caoutchouc have been de-
termined, principally, from the state in
which it exists in the elastic bottles which
are imported to Europe ; and in this state
its properties do not seem to have under-
gone any important change, or to be dif-
ferent from those of the pure caoutchouc.
Its colour is a dark brown ; its external
surface is smooth ; its internal texture
is rough, and presents a fibrous appear-
ance. Its specific gravity is nearly the
same with water, being from 9.3 to 10.0.
It is inodorous, and is also destitute of
taste.

The most remarkable physical property
of which this substance is possessed, and
which eminently distinguishes it, is its
high elasticity. It can be stretched out
to a great length, and when the force
that has been applied to it is withdrawn,
it instantly returns to its former dimen-
sions. Its pliancy is increased by heat,
while it is rendered more rigid by cold ;
and its softness, which is connected with
the former quality, is so much increased
by warmth, that it can be moulded into
any form, and two parts newly cut may
even be pressed together, so as to be in-
timately united.

Caoutchouc, exposed in a dry state to
a high temperature, softens, swells up,
and emits a fetid odour, similar to that of
animal' substances : as the heat is in-
creased, it melts into a viscid matter, and
remains in this state when cold. If heated
sufficiently high, it takes fire, and burns
with a vivid light and dense smoke ; in
the countries in which it is produced it
has been used for torches. It is perfectly
insoluble in water and alcohol, but is dis-
solved in either.

This substance is capable of being ap-
plied to important purposes, from its
softness and flexibility, its elasticity, and

particularly its indestructibility, and not
being affected by air, water, or indeed
the' greater number of chemical agents.
Tubes for conveying gases, and other
chemical instruments, are accordingly
prepared from it ; and bougies, catheters,
and similar surgical instruments of ca-
outchouc, are much preferable to what
can be prepared from any other sub-
stance.

The solution of caoutchouc in some of
the oils has been used as a varnish, to
render flexible substances, as silk, &c.
impermeable to water or air. It has the
advantage of being perfectly flexible; but
it is long before it dries, and is liable to
be softened by a very moderate heat.
To render it less viscid, it is generally
prepared from a mixture of volatile and
expressed oils.

CAP of maintenance, one of the rega-
lia, or ornaments of state, belonging to
the kings of England, before whom it was
carried at the coronation, and other great
solemnities. Caps of maintenance are also
carried before the mayors of several cities
in England.

It is of crimson velvet, faced with er-
mine, and was formerly esteemed a badge
and symbol of dignity, and suitable to a
prince of the blood, being worn by King
Edward III. and succeeding sovereigns
down to Edward VI. but of late it has
been granted to private families. It is
frequently to be met with above the hel-
met, instead of a wreath, under gentle-
men's crests.

CAP, in a ship, a square piece of tim-
ber put over the head or upper end of
any mast, having a round hole to receive
the mast. By means of these caps the
top-masts and top -gall ant-masts are kept
steady and firm in the tressel-trees where
their feet stand.

CAP of a gun, a piece of lead which is
put over a touch-hole of a gun, to keep
the priming from being wasted or spoiled.

CAPACITY, in a general sense, an ap-
titude or disposition to retain or hold any
thing.

CAPACITY, in geometry, is the solid
contents of any body ; also our hollow
measures for wine, beer, corn, salt, &c
are called measures of capacity.

CAPACITY, in the modern doctrine of
heat, signifies the proportional capabi-
lity of a given quantity of any substance
to absorb and retain caloric, or that dis-
position or property, by which various
bodies respectively require more or less
of this fluid to superinduce any given

CAPACITY.

temperature in a given mass. See CA-
LORIC.

That this capacity varies in different
bodies, and even in the same substance
in different states, may be easily shewn.
If the quantities of heat necessary to be
added to or taken from bodies, in order
to produce equal changes in their tem-
perature, were in all cases proportional
to their respective quantities of matter ;
as if, for example, it would require the
same quantity of this fluid to heat a
pound of water, a pound of oil, or a
pound of mercury, 20 degrees, this would,
of course, indicate that their capacities
were equal : but if, on the contrary, it
should be found that the same quantity
of caloric, applied to these various sub-
stances, should produce different changes
in the temperature of equal quantities,
or equal changes in the temperature of
different quantities of each, it would fol-
low, that their capacities from this fluid
must proportionally vary. Let us con-
ceive, that having three several pounds
of water at the temperature of 110° of
Fahrenheit's thermometer in separate
vessels, there be added to the first a
quantity of water at 50° ; to the second
a quantity of spermaceti oil, also at 50° ;
and to the third a quantity of mercury
at the like temperature of 50° ; and that
each of the mixtures be stirred together,
and the addition continued, till they have
all assumed throughout a common tem-
perature of 70°. Now, as each of the
pounds of water has, in this case, been
deprived of an equal quantity of caloric,
(viz, as much as was necessary to raise
its temperature 40°, or from 70° to 110°,
the absolute capacities of the whole of
the water, the oil, and the mercury,
which have been added, must, of course,
be equal, whatever be the quantity of
each ; each of them having absorbed an
equal quantity of heat. On comparing
the quantities of these latter substances,
however, it will be found that we have
employed in the experiment about two
pounds of water at 50°, four pounds of
oil, and nearly sixty pounds of mercury,
each of which has been heated 20°; so
that it requires as much caloric to heat
one pound of water 20°, as to produce
the same effect on two of oil, or 30 of
mercury ; and their relative capacities
are therefore inversely in this proportion.
A change of capacity in the same body
is producible in three ways : by mecha-
nical compression or dilatation, by che-
mical combination, or by the action of
heat itself, of each of which we shall say

a few words. With regard to the first,
the general fact appears to be, that
wherever a bady is by any means con-
densed, its capacity becomes diminished ;
but that where it is dilated or enlarged
in its bulk, it is proportionally increased.
Thus, if a thermometer be suspended in
a receiver, and a quan iiy of air con-
densed into it, the mercury will rise ; a
part of the caloric which is contained
in the air bein,;, as it were, squeezed
out by its compression, and forced into
the mercury in the bulb, wiiose tempera^
ture is consequently raised : if, however,
on the contrary, the air be rarefied, the
thermometer will indicate cold ; the ca-
pacity of the air in the receiver being
increased by its rarefaction, and a por-
tion of the caloric in the contiguous bo-
dies consequently absorbed, whereby
their temperature is lowered and their
bulk diminished.

The second mode of changing the ca-
pacities of bodies is by their chemical
combination ; and, perhaps, there is no
combination unaccompanied by such a
change. In some instances this takes
place in a very remarkable degree, and
it is from hence that we derive the etlects
of calorific and fngonfic mixtures. If,
for example, a quantity of sulphuric acid,
diluted with an equal measure of water,
be poured on a quantity of crystals of
Glauber's salt, recently powdered, the
capacity of the compound is considerably
greater than that of its component ingre-
dients ; it becomes, therefore, strongly
absorbent of caloric, which it attracts
from the bodies in its vicinity, and a quan-
tity of water in a phial placed in the mix-
ture will be soon frozen.

The third case of change of capacity,
by the action of heat itself, is, perhaps,
productive of more important effects in
nature than either of the other two. The
capacities ot all bodies are increased in
some proportion to the dilatation of their
bulk, and the disa ;gregation of their
constituent particles, as well by the
agency of caloric as by any other 'cause.
Hence, when a solid is fused, or a liquid
resolved into vapour, cold is produced
by the augmentation of its capacity ; and,
e converso, when steam is condensed, or
congelation takes place, heat is developed
by its diminution. Thus, if equal quan-
tities of pounded ice and water, each at
S2° of Fahrenheit, be exposed to heat in
two similar vessels in a water-bath, the
water will be heated in 178° before the
ice is all dissolved, the water produced
from which will, of course, still remain

CAP

at 32°, so that the increase of capacity
in the ice, during its solution, is sufficient
to enable it to absorb, without any eleva-
tion of its temperature, as much caloric
as has raised the temperature of an equal
quantity of water 146° ; and the like quan-
tity is also again emitted on its becoming
again congealed. If a quantity of water
be xposed without agitation to a degree
of cold equal to 24°' or 25°, it will fre-
quently acquire this temperature without
freezing; but as soon as congelation be-
gins, the thermometer will immediately
rise to 32°. and the whole will remain at
that temperature till all the water is con-
verted into ice.

This latter change of capacity appears
to be absolutely essential to the well-be-
ing of the universe, as affording a con-
stant modification of the action of heat
and cold, whose effects would otherwise
be inordinate. If this did not take place,
the whole of a mass of water which was
exposed to a temperature above the boil-
ing point would be instantly dissipated in
vapour with explosion. The fact, how-
ever, is, that the capacity of those por-
tions of the liquid, which are successively
resolved into a vapour, becomes thereby
sufficiently augmented to enable them to
absorb the superabundant caloric as fast
as it is communicated : and it is for this
reason that boiling water in an open ves-
sel never reaches a higher temperature
than 212°. The polar ices would all in-
stantaneously dissolve, whenever the
temperature of the circumambient air
was above 32°, if it were not that each
particle absorbs a quantity of caloric in
its solution, and thereby generates a de-
gree of cold, which arrests and regulates
the progress of the thaw ; and the con-
verse of this takes place in congelation,
which is in its turn moderated by the heat
developed in consequence of the dimi-
nution of capacity, which takes place in
the water during its transition to a solid
state.

CAPACITY, in law, the ability of a man,
or body politic, to give or take lands, or
other things, or sue actions.

Our law allows the king two capacities,
a natural and a political; in the first he may
purchase lands to him and his heirs ; in
the latter to him and his successors. The
clergy have the like.

CAPARASON, or horse cloth, a sort
of cover for a horse. For led horses it is
commonly made of linen cloth, bordered
round with woollen, and enriched with
the arms of the master upon the middle,
which covers the croupe, and with two
cyphers on the two sides. The capara-

sons for the army are sometimes a great
bear's skin, -and those for stables are of
single buckram in summer, and oi cloth
in the winter.

CAPELLA, in astronomy, a bright fix-
ed star of the first magnitude, in the left
shoulder of the constellation Auriga. It
is in the Britannic Catalogue the four-
teenth in order of that constellation. Its
longitude is 17° 3l' 41", it latitude 22°
51' 47."

CAPER. See CAPPAHIS.

CAPIAS, is a writ of two sorts, one
whereof is called capias ad respondendum,
before judgment, where an original is
sued out, &c. to take the defendant and
make him answer the plaintiff': and the
other a writ of execution, after judgment,
being of divers kinds.

CAPIAS ad respondendum, is a writ com-
manding the sheriff to take the body of
the defendant, if he may be found in his
bailiwic or county, and him safely to keep,
so that he may have him in court on the
day of the return, to answer to the plain-
tiff' of a plea of debt, or trespass, or the
like, as the case may be. And if the
sheriff' return that he cannot be found,
then there issues another writ, called an
alias capias ,• and after that another, call-
ed phiries capias,- and if upon none of these
he can be found, then he may be pro-
ceeded against unto outlawry. But all
this being only to compel an appearance,
after, the defendant hath appeared, the
effect of these writs is taken off, and the
defendant shall be put to answer, unless
it be in cases where special bail is re-
quired, and there the defendant is actual-
ly to be taken into custody.

CAPIAS ad satisfaciendum, is a writ di-
rected to the. sheriff, commanding him to
take the body of the defendant, and him
safely to keep, so that he may have his
body in court at the return of the writ,
to make the plaintiff' satisfaction for his
demand; otherwise he is to remain in
custody till he do. When a man is once
taken in execution upon this writ, no
other process can be sued out against his
lands or goods. But if a defendant die
whilst charged in execution upon this
writ, the plaintiff may, after his death,
sue out new executions against his lands,
goods, or chatties.

CAPIAS, -utlegatum, is a writ that lies
against a person that is outlawed in any
action, whereby the sheriff' is command-
ed to apprehend the body of the party
outlawed, and keep him in safe custody
till the day of the return of the writ, and
then present him to the court, there to
be dealt with for his contempt. But this

CAP

being only for want of appearance, if he
shall afterwards appear, the outlawry is
most commonly reversed.

CAPIAS in ivithernam, is a writ directed
to the sheriff, in case where a distress is
carried out of the county, or concealed
by the distrainer, so that the sheriff can-
not make deliverance of the goods upon
a replevin, commanding- him to take so
many of the distrainer's own goods, by
way of reprisal, instead of the other that
are so concealed.

CAPILLARY tubes, in physics, little
pipes, whose canals are extremely nar-
row, their diameter being- only a half,
third, or fourth of a line.

The ascent of water, &c. in capillary
tubes, is a phenomenon that has long em-
barrassed philosophers ; for let one end
of a glass tube, open at both ends, be im-
merged in water, and the liquor within
the tube will rise to some sensible height
above the external surface ; or if two or
more tubes are immerged in the same
fluid, one of them a capillary one, the
other of a larger bore ; the fluid will as-
cend higher in the capillary tube than in
the other, and this in the reciprocal ratio
of the diameters of the tubes.

In order to account for this phenome-
non,itwill be necessary first to premise that
there is a greater attraction between the
particles of glass and water, than there
is between the particles of water them-
selves: this appears plain from experience
which proves the attractive power in the
surface of glass to be very strong; whence
it is easy to conceive how sensible such a
power must act on the surface of a fluid
not viscid, as water contained within the
small cavity or bore of a glass tube ; as
also that it will be in proportion stronger
as the diameter of the bore is smaller ;
for that the efficacy of the power follows
the inverse proportion of the diameter is
evident from hence, that only such par-
ticles as are in contact with the fluid, and
these immediately above the surface, can
affect it. Now these particles form a
periphery, contiguous to the surface, the
upper part of which attracts and raises
the surface, and the lower part, which is
in contact with it, supports and holds
it up, so that neither the thickness nor
length of the tube avails any thing, only
the said periphery of particles, which is
always proportional to the diameter of
the bore : the quantity of the fluid raised
will therefore be as the surface of the
bore which it fills, that is, as the diameter;
as the effect would not be otherwise pro-
portional to the cause, since the quanti-
ties follow the ratio of the diameters, the

heights to which the fluids will rise ii^
different lubes will be inversely as the
diameters.

Some, however, doubt whether the
law holds throughout, of the ascent of
the fluid hiring always higlier as the tube
is smaller. Dr. Hook's experiments, with
tubes almost as fine as cobwebs, seem to
shew tlu- contrary. The water in these,
he observes, did not rise so high as one
would have expected. The highest he
ever found was at 21 inches above the
level of the water in the basin, which is
much short of what it ought to have been
by the law above mentioned.

CAPILLARY vessels, in anatomy, the
smallest and extreme parts of the veins
and arteries.

CAPITAL, the head, chief, or princi-
cipal of a thing. Thus,

CAPITAL, in geography, denotes the
principal city of a kingdom, province,
or state ; as London is the capital of
Britain.

CAPITAL, among merchants, traders,
and bankers, signifies the sum of money
which individuals bring, to make up the
common stock of a partnership when it
is first formed. It is also said of the
stock which a merchant at first puts into
trade for his account. It signifies like-
wise the fund of a trading company, or
corporation, in which sense the word
stock is generally added to it : thus, we
say, the capital stock of the bank, &c. —
The word capital is opposed to that of
profit or gain, though the profit often
increases the capital, and becomes itself
a part of it.

CAPITAL crime, such a one as subjects
the criminal to capital punishment, that
is, the loss of life.

CAPITAL, in architecture, the upper-
most part of a column or pilaster, serving-
?s the head or crowning, and placed im-
mediately over the shaft, and under the
entablature.

The capital is the principal part of an
order of columns or pilasters. It is of a
different form in the different orders,
and is that which chiefly distinguishes
and characterizes the orders. Such of
these as have no ornaments, as the Tus-
can and Doric, are called capitals of
mouldings; and the rest, which have
leaves and other ornaments, capitals of
sculptures.

CAPITAL, Tuscan, consists of three mem-
bers, viz. an abacus, under this an ovolo
or quarter round, and under that a neck
or colarino, terminating in an astragal or
fillet, belonging to the shaft.

CAPITAL, Doric> has its abacus plain,

CAP

and three annulets under the ovolo, or
echinus.

CAPITAL, Ionic, that which is distin-
guished by volutes and ovolos. The ovo-
lo is adorned with eggs and darts.

CAPITAL, Corinthian, is the richest of
all, being adorned with a double row of
leaves, with eight large and as many small
volutes, situated round a body, which by
some is called campana, or bell, and by
others tambour or capsule.

CAPITAL, composite, that which has the
double row of leaves of the Corinthian,
and the volutes of the Ionic capital.

CAPITALS, among printers, large or
initial letters, in which titles are com-
posed.

The Englfsh printers some years ago
made it a rule to begin almost every sub-
stantive with a capital; a custom qpt more
absurd than that of using no capitals at
all.

Capkals, however, may very properly
commence the first word of every book,
chapter, letter, note, or any other piece
of writing: the first word after a period,
and if the two sentences are totally inde-
pendent, after a note of interrogation or
exclamation ; but if a number of inter-
rogative or exclamatory sentences are
thrown into one general group, or if the
construction of the latter sentences de-
pends on the former, all of them except
the first, may begin with a small letter:
the appellations of the deity : proper
names of persons, places, streets, moun-
tains, rivers, ships : adjectives derived
from the proper names of places : the
first word of a quotation, introduced
after a colon, or when it is in a direct
form ; but when a quotation is intro-
duced obliquely after a comma, a capital
is unnecessary: the first word of an exam-
ple : every substantive and principal word
in the titles of books : and the first word
of every line in poetry. The pronoun I,
and the interjection O, are also written
in capitals. Other words, beside the
preceding, may likewise be^in with capi-
tals, when they are remarkably emphati-
cal, or the principal subject of the com-
position. The ancient MSS. both Greek
and Latin, are written wholly in capitals.

CAPITATION, a tax or imposition
raised on each person, in consideration of
his labour, industry, office, rank, &c.

CAPITE, in law, an ancient tenure of
land, which was held immediately of the
king, as of his crown, either by knight's
service or socage. The tenure in capite
was of two kinds, the one principal and
general, the other special or subaltern.
The former was of the king, the fountain

VOL. IH.

from whence all tenures have their main
original The latter was of a particular
snbject, so called, because he was the
first that granted the land in such man-
ner, and hence he was styled " caphalis
dominus, and caput terrx illius." This te-
nure is now abolished, and, with others,
turned into common socage.

CAPITULATION, in military affairs, a
treaty made between the garrison or inha-
bitants of a place besieged, and the be-
siegers, for the delivering up the place
on certain conditions.

The most honourable and ordinary
terms of capitulation are, to march out at
the breach, with arms and baggage,
drums beating, colours flying, a match
lighted at both ends, and some pieces of
cannon, waggons, and convoys for their
baggage, and for the sick and wounded.

CAPPARIS, in botany, English caper-
bush, a genus of the Polyandna Monogy-
nia class and order. Natural order of
Putamineae. Caparides, Jussieu : Essen-
tial character : calyx four-leaved, coria-
ceous; petals four ; stamens long; berry
corticose, one-celled, pedicelled. There
are twenty-five species. This genus con-
sists of shrubs. The leaves are simple
in the berry-bearing sorts, having fre-
quently two spines at the base, but in
those which bear pods commonly naked
or bi-glandular. Flowers in a kind of co-
rymb, terminating. Some of the species
have a berry, others have a silique or pod
for a fruit. C. spinosa, common caper-
bush, is a low shrub, generally growing
out of the joints of old walls, the fissures
of rocks, and among rubbish. It grows
wild in the southern countries of Europe,
and in the Levant. Dr. Smith thinks it
surprising that this beautiful shrub,which
is as common in the South of France as
the bramble with us, should be almost
unknown in our gardens, where it can
scarcely be made to flower, except in a
stove with great care.

CAPRA, the goat, in natural history, a
genus of Mammalia, of the order Pecora.
Generic character : horns hollow, com-
pressed ; rough, almost close at theiv
base, turned back ; eight lower fore
teeth ; no tusks ; chin in the male beard-
ed. Of these there are three species, of
which we shall attend particularly to the
C. hircus, or common goat. ' This ani-
mal is found domesticated in almost
every part of the Globe, but was intro-
duced into America only on its discovery
by Europeans. In its internal structure
it extremely resembles sheep, but is far
superior to them in alertness, sentiment,
and intelligence. The goat approaches

CAPRA.

man without difficulty, is won by kind-
ness, and capable of attachment. Con-
finement is ill suited to his excursive
tendencies, and he is fond of retiring
into solitude, and ranging- on the cliffs of
the most rugged and barren mountains.
He will not only climb and stand on the
loftiest craggs, but sleep also on the
verge of the most steep and terrific pre-
cipices. He is capable of enduring both
cold aod heat, and the most ardent rays
of the sun produce in him no vertigo or
sickness of any description ; the violence
of storms causes him little or no inconve-
niencies, but he suffers somewhat from
very rigorous cold. His organs are ex-
tremely supple, and his frame is robust
and nervous. Almost all herbs are used
by him for food, and few are noxious to
him. His favourite nourishment, how-
ever, is derived from the tender branches
and bark of trees and shrubs, from lichens
and hemlock. He is sprightly, roaming
and lascivious in the extreme ; inconstant
and capricious in his temper; and the vi-
vacity of his feelings is exhibited in a
perpetual succession of rapid, abrupt,
and sportive movements. He prefers
barren heats to luxuriant pastures,
avoids moist and marshy places, and
never flourishes but in mountainous, or
at least elevated situations. The female
will allow itself to be sucked by the
young of various other animals, and a
foal which has lost its mother has been
seen thus nourished by a goat, which, in
order to facilitate the process, was placed
on a barrel. The attachment between
the nurse and foal appeared strong and
natural. The milk of the goat, contain-
ing few oily particles, is much valued in
medicine, and being easily curdled, is
formed into cheese of high estimation.—
The celebrated Parmesan cheese is made
of it.

The goats of Wales are generally
white, and are both stronger and larger
than those of other hilly countries. Their
flesh is much used by the inhabitants,
and often dried and salted, and substitut-
ed for bacon. The skins of kids are
much valued for gloves, and were for-
merly employed in furniture, when paint-
ed with rich colours, of which they are
particularly capable,and embellished with
ornamental flowers and works of silver
and gold.

The extremely unpleasant odour at-
tending these animals is supposed to be
beneficial, and horses appear so much
refreshed by it, that a goat is on this ac-
count often kept in the stables of the
yreat. Of the many varieties of this

species, that of Angora is the most cu-
rious. It is principally valued for its
long and exquisitely fine hair, which it
loses by a change of pasture from the
immediate vicinity of Angora, and which
the owners are incessantly assiduous in
washing and combing, and otherwise
promoting its growth and cleanliness. —
It is formed into camlets of the finest
texture.

The Syrian goat is remarkable for its
pendulous ears, and is common in va-
rious parts of the East : the animals of
this variety are driven in flocks through
the Oriental towns every morning and
evening, and each house-keeper sees
drawn from them, before her door, as
much milk as she is in want of. See
Mammalia, Plate VI. fig. 6.

The Chamois goat inhabits the most
elevated mountains of Europe, and feeds
on shrubs, roots and herbs : its chase is
extremely laborious and danger/cms : its
sight and smell are both exquisite : it is
particularly shy : its swiftness is also very
great, and it makes its way with speed
over the most pointed rocks, can mount
or descend precipices with facility, and
hang on steeps nearly perpendicular. —
Plate VI. fig- 5.

C. Ibex, or the Ibex goat of Pennant.
This is considerably larger than the lust
species : its blood was formerly deemed
a specific in the materia medica for va-
rious diseases : its strength and feeling
are extraordinary : it is found in the Car-
pathian and Pyrennean mountains, in the
Rhoetian Alps, in Crete, and in Tartary.
When hardly pressed, it will throw itself
from a vast height with little or no injury,
contriving always to fall on its horns.
Plate IV. fig. 4.

C. Caucasica, the Caucasan goat, in-
habits the most rugged rocks of mount
Caucasus, and is, perhaps, superior in
vigour and agility to all that have been
mentioned. A bezoar is sometimes found
in the stomach of this animal, as. well
as in that of several others quadrupeds.
Monardes states that he saw one of these
creatures leap from a high tower, and
having reached the ground upon his
horns, immediately, without any wound,
dislocation, or contusion, rise on his feet.

CAPRARIA, in botany, goat-weed, a
genus of the Didynamia Angiospermia
class and order. Natural order of Per-
sonatse. Scrophularix, Jussieu: Essen-
tial character : calyx five-parted ; corol
bell-form, five-cleft, acute ; capsules bi-
valve, bilocular, many seeded. There are
seven species, of which C. biflora, shrub-
by goat-weed, or sweet-weed, is a shrub.

CAP

seldom exceeding- four feet in height ;
branches long and woody; leaves oblong
acuminate at both ends, an inch and
half long ; peduncles one-flowered, slen-
der ; flowers without scent, calyx smooth ;
corolla white ; capsule furrowed on both
sides the length of the calyx; seeds
smuil. It is common in Jamaica, in all
the Caribbees, and the neighbouring con-
tinent.

CAPRICORN, in astronomy, one of the
twelve signs of the zodiac, represented
on globes in the form of a goat, and cha-
racterized in books by this mark VJ . See

ASTROXOMT.

CAPRICORN, tropic of, a lesser circle of
the sphere, which is parallel to the equi-
noctial, and at 23° 30' distance from it
southwards.

CAPR1FOLIA, the third order of the
eleventh class of Jussieu's natural system.
It has the following characters: calyx
one-leafed, superior, often calycled or
bracteated at its base ; corolla generally
monopetalous, either regular or irregular,
in a few instances polypetalous ; petals
united by a broad base ; stamens of a de-
finite number, often five: in the monope-
talous genera always inserted into the
corolla, and alternating with its segments;
in thepolypetalousonessometimes placed
upon the pistil, alternating with the pe-
tajs, and sometimes fixed to the middle of
each petal; germ inferior ; style general-
ly single, sometimes none ; stigma single,
or rarely three ; fruit inferior, either a
berry or a one or many-celled capsule ;
each cell with one or many seeds ; corcu-
lum of the seed in a large upper cavity of
the large solid perisperm ; stem either a
shrub or a tree, rarely herbaceous; leaves
in most opposite, in a few alternate; sti-
pules none.

CAPRIMULGUS, the goatsucker, in
natural history, a genus of birds of the
order Passeres. Generic character : bill
short and hooked at the end; mouth
extremely wide, with seven or more stiff
bristles on the upper mandible ; tongue
entire at the end and small ; tail of ten
feathers, and not forked; legs short;
toes united as far as the first joint by a
membrane ; middle claw with a broad
serrate edge.

The birds of this genus, unless dis-
turbed, or in cloudy and gloomy wea-
ther, seldom make their appearance by
day, but by night are active and alert in
the pursuit of insects, which constitute
their food. The female deposits only
two eggs, and on the bare ground.
There are according to Gmelin nineteen

species, though Latham enumerates only
fifteen. The most curious and interesting
are —

C. Europ<eus, or the European goat-
sucker. This is the only species met
with in Europe, in every part of which it
may be found, though no where abun-
dantly, and it is never observed to unite
in companies. Being migratory, it arrives
in England in May, and quits it in Sep-
tember. It is a mortal enemy to various
insects, and particularly to cockchafers,
six of which, besides four very large
moths, have been found in its stomach.
The glare of day is overpowering to its
sight, which is cleared by twilight.
During this, therefore, it is in quest of
food, and in full activity. It is singular for
perching, not across a branch as other
birds do, but lengthwise : the female
lays her eggs on the ground instead of a
nest, apparently little anxious for their
maturity : though when disturbed she
will move them it is said to a place ima-
gined by her to be more secure.

C. Virginianus, or the Virginian goat-
sucker. This bird arrives in Virginia in
April, and inhabits principally the moun-
tainous parts of that country. As the
evening advances, it approaches the ha-
bitations of man, and, fixing on a post or
rail, utters many times one plaintive cry;
and from the evening till the morning
this movement and cry are with short in-
tervals repeated. Instead of pursuing in-
sects always on the wing, it often leaps
up for them as they pass with the most
successful dexterity, falling back again
upon its perching place. Its flesh is va-
lued for food

CAPSICUM, in botany,English Guinea-
pepper, a genus of the Pentandria Mono-
gynia class and order. Natural order of
Luridae. Solanese,Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter : corolla rotated ; berry exsuc-
cous. There are five species according
to Martyn, but many botanists mention
sixteen, and others twenty. C. annum,
annual capsicum, or Guinea-pepper, is
two feet high, upright, branched, leaves
ovate lanceolate, smooth, and of a dark
green colour ; flowers white, lateral, so-
litary. The fruit is a berry, varying in
size and shape, extremely smooth and
shining on the outside, scarlet or yellow.
The beauty of the capsicum is in their
ripe fruit, forming a pretty contrast to
their dark leaves and white flowers, mak-
ing a beautiful appearance in the gardens
when properly disposed, or when planted
in pots for the decoration of courts.
Most of the sorts of capsicum are na-

CAP

CAR

lives of both the Indies, but they are
chiefly brought to Europe from America,
where they abound in all the Caribbee
islands, and are greatly used in sauces,
whence the fruit is called Guinea-pep-
per. From the C. minimum is obtain-
ed the Cayenne-pepper, so much used in
highly-seasoned cookery. See CAYENNE-

CAPSTAN, or main-capstan, in a ship,
a great piece of timber in the nature of a
windlass, placed next behind the main-
mast, its foot standing in a step on the
lower deck, arid its head between the
upper deck ; formed into several squares
with holes in them. Its use is to weigh
the anchors, to hoist up or strike down
top-masts, to heave any weighty matter,
or to strain any rope that requireth a main
force.

GA.psTAS-bars, the pieces of wood that
are put into the capstain-holes to heave up
any thing of weight into the ship.

CAPSTAN, pawl of a, a short piece of
iron made fast to the deck, and resting
upon the whelps, to keep the capstain
from recoiling, which is of dangerous con-
sequence.

CAPSTAN, -whelps of a, are short pieces
of wood made fast to it, to keep the ca-
ble from coming too nigh in turning it
about.

CAPSULE, among botanists, a species
of pericarpium, or seed-vessel, composed
of several dry elastic valves which usu-
ally burst open at the points when the
seeds are ripe: it differs from a pod in be-
ing roundish and short. This kind of peri-
carpium sometimes contains one cell or
cavity, sometimes more ; in the first case
it is called unilocular, as it is bilocular,
trilocular, &c. when it contains two, three,
&,c. cells or cavities

CAPTION, in law, is where a commis-
sion is executed, and the commissioners
subscribe their names to a certificate, de-
claring when and where the commission
was executed. It relates chiefly to com-
missions to take answers in chancery, and
depositions of witnesses, and take fines of
lands, &c.

CAPTION and horning, in the law of
Scotland. When a decree or sentence is
obtained against any person, the obtainer
thereof takes out a writ, whereby the
party discerned is charged to pay or fulfil
the will of the decree, under the pain of
rebellion : this writ is called letters of
horning. If he refuse to comply, then
the writ or letters of caption may be rais-
ed, whereby all the inferior judges and
magistrates are commanded to assist in

apprehending the rebel, and putting him
in prison.

CAPTURE, a prize taken by a ship of
war at sea : vessels are looked upon as
prizes, if they fight under any other stand-
ard than that of the state from winch they
have their commissions, if they have no
charter-party, invoice, or bill of lading
aboard ; if loaded with effects belong-
ing to the king's enemies, or even contra-
band goods. Those of the king's subjects
recovered from the enemy, after remain-
ing twenty-four hours in their hands, are
deemed lawful prizes, if taken. In ship*
of war the prizes are to be divided among
the captors, f. e. officers, seamen, &c. as
his Majesty shall appoint by proclama-
tion; but among privateers the division is
according to agreement among the own-
ers. See PRIZE.

CAPURA, in botany, a genus of the
Hexandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character ; calyx none ; corolla
six-cleft; stamina \vithin the tube ; germ
superior ; stigma globular ; pericarp ber-
ry. There is but one species, viz. C. pur-
purata, native of the East Indies.

CAPUT Draconis, the Dragon's head,
in astronomy, the ascending node of the
moon See NODE. Caput Draconis is al-
so a starof the first magnitude in the head
of the constellation Draco.

CAPUT mortuum, in chemistry, that thick
dry matter which remains after distil-
lation of any thing, but of minerals es-
pecially. These residues were formerly
thrown away as of no value. Glauber
was the first person who examined them
with minuteness, and in the research he
discovered the sulphate of soda, then
named after himself, Glauber's salt. This
he obtained in the caput mortuum re-
maining after the distillation of muri-
atic acid from common salt and green
vitriol.

CARABINE, afire-arm, shorter than a
musket, carrying a ball of twenty-four in
the pound, borne by the light-horse,
hanging at a belt over the left shoulder.
The barrel is two feet and a half long, and
is sometimes furrowed spirally within,
which is said to add to the range of the
piece.

CARABUS,in natural history, a genus
of insects of the order Coleoptera. Gene-
ric character: antennae filiform, feelers
mostly six; the last joint obtuse and trun-
cate ; thorax flat, margined ; shells mar-
gined. This is an exceedingly numerous
genus, and the insects of it are extremely
active and quick in running ; they devour
the larva: of other insects,and all the weaker

CAR

GAR

animals they can overcome ; the legs are
long; thighs compressed; shanks rounded
and ciliate within, the fore ones spinous
before the tip : the larvx are found under
groundjorin decayed wood Many species
are to be found in our own coun-
try, among which one of the largest is
the C. hortensis, so named from its being
frequently seen in gardens and pathways.
Among the smaller species is the C. cu-
preus, a very frequent insect, being seen
almost every where during the summer
months, in gardens, dry pathways, &c.
generally running, like the rest of the
genus, with a very brisk motion ; its
usual length is about half an inch, and its
colour varying from the copper to the
gold green. Of the British species more
than a hundred have been enumerated.
On the cont nent the C. cripitans is the
mosi remarkable; so named from the
power which it possesses of discharg-
ing from behind, several times in succes-
sion, on being pursued, a fetid and pene-
trating vapour, accompanied by a very
smart explosion, thus escaping by terri-
fying its pursuers.

CAR ACT, CARAT, CARRAT, the name
of that weight which expresses the de-
gree of fineness that gold is of. The
mint-master, or custom, have fixed the
purity of gold at 24 caracts; though it is
not possible so to purify and refine that
metal, but it will want still about one-
fourth part of a caract in absolute purity
and perfection. These degrees serve to
distinguish the greater or lesser quantity
of alloy therein contained: for instance,
gold of 22 caracts is that which has two
parts of silver, or of any other metal, and
22 of fine gold. The caract is divided

inM'TV.»andlV

CARACT is also a certain weight which
goldsmiths and jewellers use, wherewith
to weigh precious stones and pearls. The
caract by which jewellers estimate the
weight of diamonds and pearls is about
^ of an ounce troy : hence the caract is
about 3.1 grains troy.

CARAVAN, in the East, signifies a
company or assembly of travellers and
pilgrims, and more particularly of mer-
chants, who, fortheir greater security, and
in order to assist each other, march in a
body through the deserts, and other dan-
gerous places, which are infested with
Arabs or robbers. There is a chief, or
aga, who commands the caravan, and is
attended by a certain number of janiza-
ries, or other militia, according to the
countries from whence the caravans set

out ; which number of soldiers must be*
sufficient to defend them, and conduct
them with safety to the places for which
they are designed, and on a day appoint-
ed. The caravan encamps every evening
near such wells or brooks as their guides
are acquainted with; and there is as
strict discipline observed upon this occa-
sion, as in armies in time of war. Their
beasts of burden are partly horses, but
most commonly camels, who are capable
of undergoing very great fatigue. The
Grand Signior gives one-fourth of the
revenues of Egypt to defray the expense
of the caravan that goes yearly to Mecca,
to visit Mahomet's tomb : the devotees
in this caravan are from forty to seventy
thousand, accompanied with soldiers, to
protect them from the pillage of the
Arabs, and followed by eight or nine
thousand camels, laden with all necessa-
ry provisions for so long a passage across
deserts.

CARAVAN, is also used for the voyages
or campaigns which the knights of Malta
are oblige -1 to make at sea against the
Turks and Corsairs, that they may arrive
at the commendaries or dignities of the
order. The reason of their being thus
called is, because the knights have often
seized the caravans going from Alexan-
dria to Constantinople.

CAR A VAN SERA, or KARAVANSERA, a
large public building or inn, appointed
for receiving and lodging the caravans.
It is commonly a large square building, in
the middle of which there is a very spacious
court ; and under the arches or piazzas
that surround it there runs a bank, raised
some feet above the ground, where the
merchants, and those who travel with
them in any capacity, take up their lodg-
ings as well as they can ; the beasts of
burden being tied to the foot of the bank.
Over the gates that lead into the court
there are sometimeslittlerooms, which the
keepers of the caravanseras let out, at a
very high price, to such as have a mind to
be private. The caravanseras in the East
are something in the nature of the inns in
Europe, only that you meet with little ac-
commodation either for man or beast, but
are obliged to carry almost every thing
with you : there is* never a caravansera
without a well or spring of water. These
buildings are chiefly owing to the charity
of the Mahometans: they are esteemedsa-
cred dwellings, where it is not permitted
to insult any person, or to pillage any of
the effects that are deposited there. They
even carry their precautions so far, as
not to suffer any man who is not married

CARBON.

to lodge there ; because they are of opi-
nion, that a man that has no wife is more
dangerous than another.

CARBON, in chemistry. The term car-
bon having been understood in different
senses, and having been actually applied
to different substances, it is necessary to
guard against the ambiguity arising from
this circumstance, and with this view to
trace in a general manner the progress of
those discoveries, from which the name
originated, and by which its application
has since been changed.

When vegetable matter, especially the
more solid parts of plants, the wood for
example, is exposed to heat in close ves-
sels, it is decomposed ; the more volatile
principles are disengaged, and there re-
mains a black, shining, porous body, com-
posed of the various substances which are
not convertible by a high temperature to
the gaseous form. This substance is
termed charcoal. While the atmospheric
air is excluded, it is neither fused nor
volatilised by any increase of heat ; but
when the air is admitted, it suffers
combustion, and it continues to burn
till nearly the whole of it is consumed ;
the residuum amounting to not more than
the 200th part of the weight of the
original charcoal. This residuum is un-
inflammable, and consists principally of
saline and metallic matter. Charcoal
then is a heterogeneous substance. By
far the greater part of it consists of an
inflammable substance, which combines
with oxygen, and forms the carbonic acid
of the modern nomenclature. But this in-
flammable matter, as it exists in the char-
coal, is mixed or combined with the
saline and metallic substances left after
its combustion. For the sake of pre-
cision, a distinction is made in the new
nomenclature, between the pure inflam-
mable base and the substance in which
it is thus presented to us. Charcoal is
that black porous substance obtained
from vegetable matter, especially from
wood, by exposing it to heat ; and the
pure inflammable substance, which com-
poses by far the greater part of the char-
coal, was termed carbon. Carbon, there-
fore, according to this signification, was
charcoal destitute of the small quantity of
saline and metallic matter usually mixed
with it. The principal advantage of the
introduction of the name carbon was, not
merely that of distinguishing the inflam-
mable base from the substance in which
it was mixed with other ingredients, but
also that of giving a term capable of com-
bination, and of affording those deriva-

tive appellations which the modern sys-
tem requires. This substance is not a hy-
pothetical being, since, by certain chemi-
cal processes, by the decomposition of
carbonic acid for instance, or of alcohol
by heat, it is possible to obtain it perfect-
ly pure. It exists in a large quantity as
a component part of vegetable sub-
stances ; it enters into the composition of
animal matter, and is contained in sub-
stances belonging to the mineral king-
dom. This substance, which, when it is
obtained pure, exists in the form of a ve-
ry light black powder, was, until within
these few years, considered as a simple
body; but experiments have proved,
that it is a compound, containing an in-
flammable substance, according to some
chemists, in a state of imperfect oxyda-
tion ; according to others, combined with
hydrogen. It had been known for a con-
siderable time, that the diamond, the
most beautiful and most unchangeable of
the productions of nature, is combustible,
or that when heated vsith oxygen gas it
suffers combustion. Lavoisier made some
experiments to ascertain the nature of
the product of this combustion; and he
found it to be an acid precisely the same
with that which is produced by the burn-
ing of charcoal — what is termed the car-
bonic acid. He did not, however, as-
certain the proportion of it with suffi-
cient accuracy to draw any precise conclu-
sion. Some time after, Mr. Tennant re-
peated the experiment of oxydizing the
diamond, by exposing it to heat along
with nitrate of potash in a gold tube.
He also found that carbonic acid was
formed; and from an experiment on a
small scale, it appeared that about the
same quantity of carbonic acid was af-
forded by the oxygenation of the diamond,
as would have been produced by the
combustion of the same weight of char-
coal. He concluded that the diamond was
carbon, and differed from charcoal prin-
cipally in its form and state of aggrega-
tion ; that, in short, it might be consider-
ed as carbon crystallized.

At length Guyton resolved to examine
this subject, and his experiments afforded
very important results. The diamond on
which he experimented was burnt in a
vessel of oxygen gas, by directing the so-
lar rays upon it through a very powerful
lens. It assumed at first a leaden colour ;
by the farther continuance of the heat its
surface appeared charred. At length it
appeared sensibly to diminish, and in lit-
tle more than an hour and a half was en-
tirely consumed. The product of the

CAR

combustion was then examined, and was
found to be pure carbonic acid, the same
as that formed in the burning of charcoal;
but wh-*t surprised Guyton was, the quan-
tity produced was much greater than
what would have been produced by the
combustion of the same weight of charcoal
in oxygen gas : 28 parts of charcoal form
by combustion 100 parts of carbonic acid;
that is, combined with 72 of oxygen ;
but from only 17.8 of diamond, the same
quantity of carbonic acid is produced,
that quantity having combined with 82.1
of oxygen. In other words, one part of
charcoal combines with 2 of oxygen,
forming 3£ of carbonic acid, while one
part of diamond requires 4 of oxygen,
and produces 5 of acid. As the term car-
bon in the new nomenclature is under-
stood to be applied to the simple base of
carbonic acid, it is evident that it can no
longer be applied to the inflammable mat-
ter of charcoal ; for in that matter it must
be combined with some other principle.
Guy ton supposes that this principle is oxy-
gen, or that that inflammable body is an
oxide of carbon, standing in the same re-
lation to carbon and carbonic acid that ni-
trous oxide does to 'nitrogen and nitric
acid. Berthollet, on the contrary, has
supposed that charcoal contains hydrogen
as a constituent part. "Whichever of
these opinions is adopted, the name car-
bon, it is obvious, must now be applied to
the simple base, and will therefore be the
chemical or systematic term appropriated
to the diamond. See DIAMOND.

Besides charcoal and carbonic acid,
other substances have been discovered to
be binary compounds of carbon. The
one km.wn by the name of black-lead, or
plumbag'o, approaches nearer to the dia-
mond, or combines with more oxygen
in forming carbonic acid, than charcoal
does; and between charcoal and carbonic
acid is a gaseous compound, into the com-
position of which oxygen enters, though
it is still of the nature of an oxide. Car-
bon too combines with hydrogen and oxy-
gen, forming various elastic compounds.
See GAS.

CARBONATES, in chemistry, salts
formed by combination of the alkalies
and the carbonic acid. As the acid pow-
ers which carbonic acid actually exerts
are weak, the changes which it occasions
in the properties of the alkalies are in
general inconsiderable. They retain their
peculiar taste and acrimony, at least to a
certain extent: ammonia has still its pe-
netrating odour, u;»d in part its volatility:
they still, even when saturated with it,

change the vegetable colours to a green.
They combine with oils, forming imper-
fect soaps, and the presence of the carbo-
nic acid scarcely opposes any obstacle to
the combination of their bases with the
other acids.

CARBONIC add, a gaseous product of
the full saturation of carbon with oxygen.
It was made known to chemists by Dr.
Black, under the name of fixed air, and
may be regarded as the first of the aerial
fluids that obtained accurate examination.
It is composed of 75 parts of carbon, and
25 of oxygen. See GAS.

CARBONIC oxide, in chemistry, a gas
supposed to be compounded of carbon
and oxygen, in the proportion of about 38
to 62. This gas possesses the mechanical
properties of air. It burns with a deep
blue flame, and gives out little light. See
GAS.

CARBUNCE, in heraldry, a charge or
bearing consisting of eight radii, foul-
whereof make a common cross, and the
other four a saltier.

CARBURET, in chemistry, a com-
pound substance, in which carbon is a
constituent part. Carburet of iron, long
known under the names of plumbago and
black-lead, is composed of 90 parts of
carbon and 10 of iron. It is found native,
is of a dark grey or blue colour, and has
something of a metallic lustre. It is
found in many parts of the world, parti-
cularly in Cumberland. From the sub-
stance obtained there the best black-lead
pencils are manufactured.

CARCASE, in architecture, the shell or
ribs of a house, containing the partitions,
floors and rafters, made by carpenters ;
or it is the timber-work (or as it were the
skeleton) of a house, before it is lathed
and plastered : it is otherwise called the
framing.

CARCASSE, or CARCUSS, in the art of
war, an iron-case or hollow capacity, about
the bigness of a bomb, of an oval figure,
made of ribs of iron, filled with combus-
tible matters, as meal-powder, salt-petre,
sulphur, broken glass, shavings of horns,
turpentine, tallow, &c. The design of it
is, to be thrown out of a mortar to set
houses on fire, and do other execution.
It has two or three apertures, through
which the fire is to blaze.

CARCINOMA, in surgery and medi-
cine, a hard schirrus tumour, accompa-
nied with acute lancinating pains, ending
in ulceration.

CARD, among artificers, an instrument
consisting of a block of wood, beset with
sharp teeth, serving to arrange the hairs

CAR

of wool, flax, hemp, and the like : there
are different kinds of them, as hand-cards,
stock-cards, &c.

CARDS, among gamesters, little pieces
of fine thin pasteboard, of an oblong
figure, of several sizes, but most com-
mon in England three inches and an
half long, and two and half broad, on
which are painted several points and fi-
gures. The moulds and blocks for mak-
ing cards are exactly like those that were
used for the first books ; they lay a sheet
of wet or moist paper on the block, which
is first slightly done over with a sort of
ink made of lampblack, diluted in wa-
ter, and mixed with some starch, to give
it a body. They afterwards rub it off
with a round list. The court-cards are
coloured by means of several patterns,
styled stane-files. These consist of pa-
pers cut through with a pen-knife, and in
the apertures they, apply severally the
various colours, as red, black, &c. These
patterns are painted with oil-colours, that
the brushes may not wear them out ; and
when the pattern is laid on the paste-
board, they slightly pass over it a brush
full of colour, which, leaving it within
the openings, forms the face or figure of
the card.

CARDAMINE, in botany, a genus of
the Tetradynamia Siliquosa class and or-
der. Natural order of Siliquosa or Cru-
ciform flowers. Essential character : si-
lique opening elastically the valves revo-
lute ; stigma entire ; calyx rather gaping.
There are eighteen species; of which C.
bellidifolia has a simple root, white, and
very long; stem filiform, striated, flexile,
an inch long. Flowers white, some-
times purplish, wfth claws the length of
the calyx; siliques half an inch in length.
This plant has no smell. It flowers in
July and August.

CARDAMOM, in the materia medica,
is distinguished into three kinds, exclu-
sive of the ammonium, which is evi-
dently of the cardamom kind. They are
called by the names of the great carda-
mom, or grain of paradise ; the long or
middle cardamom ; and the lesser com-
mon cardamom of the shops.

CARDAN (HIEIIOXTMUS,) in biogra-
phy, was born at Pavia, Sept. 24, 1501.
At four years old he was carried to Milan,
his father being an advocate and physi-
cian in that city : at the age of twenty he
went to study in the university of the
same city, and two years afterward he
gave lectures on Euclid. In 1524 he
went to Padua ; the same year he was ad-
mitted to the degree of Master of Arts,

and the year following to that of Doctor
of Physic. In :539 he was admitted a
member of the College oi Physsc.-ansat
Milan: in 1543 he read public lectures
on medicine there, and the same at Pavia
the year following ; but he discontinued
them, because he could not get payment
of his salary, and returned to Milan"

In 1552, he went iruo Scotland, having
been sent for by the Archbishop ot St.
Andrews, to cure him of a grievous dis-
order, after trying the physicians oi the
King or France and of the Emperor of
Germany without benefit. He began .ore-
cover from the day that Cardan prescrib-
ed tor him. Our author took his leave of
him at the end of about six weeks, leav-
ing him prescriptions, which in t\\ o years
wrought a complete cure. Upon this, vi-
sit Cardan passed through London, and
calculated King Edward's nativity, being
famous for his knowledge in astrology.
Returning to Milan atter four months ab-
sence, he remained there till the begin-
ning of October, 1552, and then went to
Pavia, from whence lie was invited to Bo-
logna in 1562. He taught in this iast city
till the year 1570, at which time he was
thrown into prison, but some months af-
ter he was sent home to his own house.
He quitted Bologna in 1571, and v, ent to
Rome, where he lived for some time with-
out any public employment. He sVas
however admitted a member of the Col-
lege of Physicians, and received a pen-
sion from the Pope, till the time of his
death, which happened at Rome on the
21st of September, 1575.

No man of his time seems to have made
greater progress in philosophy, medicine,
and other branches of natural science,
than Cardan : in algebra he was a great
adept, and made many improvements in
the analytic art. His dexterity in solving
cubic questions has given him a lasting
name. It is affirmed by Scaliger, that
Cardan having, by his pretended skill in
astrology, predicted the time of his death,
abstained from all food, in order that he
might verity the truth of his prophecy.

CARDINAL, in a general sense, an ap-
pellation given to things on account of
their pre-eminence : thus we say, cardi-
nal winds, cardinal virtues, &c.

The cardinal virtues are these four,
justice, prudence, temperance, and forti-
tude, upon which all the rest hinge.

CARDINAL points, in cosmography, are
the four intersections of the horizon with
the meridian, and the prime vertical
circle. Of these two, viz. the intersec-
tion of the horizon and meridian, are

CAR

called north and south, with regard to
the poles they are directed to. The
other two, viz. the intersections of the
horizon and first vertical, are called
east and west. The cardinal points there-
fore coincide with the four cardinal re-
gions of the heavens, and are 90° distant
from each other. The intermediate points
are called collateral points.

CARDINAL sign*, in the zodiac, are
Aries, Libra, Cancer, and Capricorn.

CARDINAL, more particularly, signifies
an ecclesiastical prince in the Romish
church, being one who has a voice in
the conclave at the election of a Pope. —
The cardinals were originally nothing1
more than deacons, to whom was en-
trusted the care of distributing the alms
to the poor of the several quarters of
Rome ; and as they held assemblies of
the poor in certain churches of their
several districts, they took the title of
these churches. They began to be call-
ed cardinals in the year 300, during the
pontificate of St. Sylvester, by which ap-
pellation was meant the chief priests of a
parish, and next in dignity to a bishop. —
This office grew more considerable after-
wards, and by small degrees arrived at
its present height, in which it is the re-
ward of such as have served his holiness
well, even princes thinking it no diminu-
tion of their honour to become members
of the college of cardinals.

The cardinals compose the Pope's
council, and till the time of Urban VI [I.
were styled most illustrious ; but by a de-
cree of that Pope in 1630, they had the
title of eminence conferred upon them.

At the creation of a new cardinal, the
Pope performs the ceremony of shutting
and opening his mouth, which is done in
a private consistory. The shutting his
mouth, implies the depriving him of the
liberty of giving his opinion in congrega-
tions ; and the opening his mouth, which
is performed fifteen days after, signifies
the taking off this restraint. However,
if the Pope happens to die during the
time a cardinal's mouth is shut, he can
neither give his voice in the election of a
new Pope, nor be himself advanced to
that dignity.

The privileges of the cardinals are
very great: they have an absolute power
in the church during the vacancy of the
holy see : they have a right to elect the
new Pope, and are the only persons on
whom the choice can fall: most of the
.grand offices in the court of Rome are
filled by cardinals. The dress of a cardi-
nal is a red sourtanne, a rochet, a short

VOL. nr.

purple mantle, and a red hat. When
they are sent to the courts of princes,
it is in quality of legates a latere : and
when they are appointed governors of
towns, their government is called by the
name of legation.

CARDING, the combing and prepar-
ing of wool, cotton, flax, 8cc. with the in-
struments called cards.

CARDIOID, in the higher geometry,
an algebraical curve, so called from its
resemblance to a heart.

CARDIOSPERMUM, in botany, a ge-
nus of the Octandria Trigynia class and
order. Natural order of Trihilatae. Sa-
pindi, Jussieu. Essential character : calyx
four-leaved; petals four; nectary four-
leaved, unequal ; capsules three, cornate
inflated. There are three species, all of
them natives of warm countries. They
are annual, and perish soon after they
have perfected their seeds. They do not
thrive with us excepting in a stove.

CARDIUM, in natural history, the
cockle, a genus of worms of the order
Testacea ; animal a tethys; shell bivalve,
nearly equilateral, equivalve, generally
convex, longitudinally ribbed, striate or
grooved, with a toothed margin ; hinge
with two teeth near the beak, and a
larger remote lateral on each side, each
locking into the oppsite. There are
nearly 60 species.

CARDUUS, in botany, English thistle,
a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia
JEqualis class and order. Natural order
of Composite Capitatse. Cinarocephalae,
Juss. Essential character: calyx ovate,
imbricate, with spiny scales ; receptacle
hairy. There are fifty-one species. —
Little need be said of this genus, nature
having made abundant provision for their
increase, by annexing to their seeds a
light down, which makes them readily
float in the air, and scatters them wide
over the neighbouring fields. As they
are usually considered as noxious weeds,
rather than ornamental plants, few of
them are admitted into the flower garden,
and those few are valued more for their
variety, than for their beauty.

CAREENING, in the sea language, thf
bringing a ship to lie down on one side,
in order to trim and caulk the other side.
A ship is said to be brought to the careen,
when, the most of her lading being taken
out, she is hauled down on one side by a,
small vessel as low as necessary ; and
there kept by the weight of the ballast,
ordnance, 8cc. as well as by ropes, lesr
her masts should be strained too much,
in order that her sides and bottom rmy

CAR

be trimmed, seams caulked, or any thing
that is faulty under water mended. —
Hence, when a ship lies on one side when
she sails, she is said to sail on the careen.

CARET, among grammarians, a charac-
ter marked thus A, signifying that some-
thing is added on the margin, or inter-
lined, which ought tohave come in where
the caret stands.

CAREX, in botany, English sedge, a
genus of the Monoecia Triandria class
and order. Natural order of Calamariae.
Cyperoidex, Jussieu. Essential charac-
ter: ament imbricate ; calyx one-leafed;
corolla none; female, nectary inflated;
three-toothed; stigmas three; seeds three-
sided, within the 'nectary. There are
ninety-seven species. These plants are
very nearly allied to the grasses, agreeing
with them in their general appearance
and leaves. They are, however, of a
much harsher texture ; the stem is not
hollow, but filled with a spongy sub-
stance. The difference in the fructifica-
tion is very considerable, as will appear
from a comparison of the generic cha-
racters. They are perennial, and flower
in May and June. The carices' or sedges
are classed rather among the noxious
plants than with such as are useful, for
they yield a very course grass and fodder,
to the exclusion of real grass and other
profitable plants, which they subdue by
their strong creeping roots.

CARGO, denotes all the merchandize
and effects which are laden on board a
ship, exclusive of the crew, rigging, am-
munition, provisions, guns, &c. though
all these load it sometimes more than the
merchandize.

We say that a ship has its cargo, when
it is as full of merchandize as it can hold;
that it has half its cargo, when it is but
half full ; that it brings home a rich catgo,
when it is laden with precious merchan-
dize and in great quantity ; that the mer-
chant has made the whole cargo of the
ship, or only one half, or one quarter of
the cargo, when he has laden the whole
ship at his own expense, or only one half,
or one fourth of it.

Disposing of any part of the cargo, be-
fore the vessel reaches her intended port,
is called breaking bulk.

CAKGO, super, a person employed by
merchants to go a voyage, and oversee
the cargo, and dispose of it to the best
advantage.

CARLCA, in botany, a genus of the
Dioecia Decundria, or rather Polygamia
class and order. Natural order of Tri-
coccze. Cucurbitacese, Jussieu. Essen-

tial character: male calyx very small,
five-toothed; corolla five-parted, funnel-
form ; filaments in the tube of the corolla,
alternately shorter ; herm. calyx five-
toothed ; corolla five-parted ; stigmas
five; berry one-celled, many seeded. —
There are two species, viz. C. papaya,
common papaw-tree, and C. posoposo,
dwarf papaw-tree. These plants, be-
ing natives of hot countries, will not
thrive in England without the assistance
of the warm stove. Where there are
conveniences of a proper height, they
deserve a place, as well as almost any of
the plants which are cultivated for orna-
ment. They grow to the height of twen-
ty feet, with upright stems, garnished on
every side near the top with large shining
leaves. The flowers of the male sort
come out in clusters on all sides, and the
fruit of the female growing round the
stalks between the leaves, forming alto-
gether a beautiful appearance.

CARICATURA, in painting, denotes
the concealment of real beauties, and
the exaggeration of blemishes, but still
so as to preserve a resemblance of the
object.

CARIES, in surgery, the ulceration of
a bone. See SURGERY.

CAR1NA, in botany, a keel, the name
which Linnaeus gives to the lower con-
cave petal of a pea bloom, or butterfly-
shaped flower, from its supposed resem-
blance to the keel of a ship.

CARISSA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogvnia class and order.
Natural order of Contorts. Apocinese,
Jussieu. Essential character: corolla con-
torted ; berries two, many seeded. There
are two species, natives of the East-Indies
and Africa.

CARLINA, in botany, English carline
thistle, a genus of the Syngenesia Poly-
gamia JEqualis class and order. Natural
order of Compound Flowers : division of
Capitate. Cinarocephalae, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : calyx radiated, with
long, coloured, marginal scales. There
are nine species, most of them natives of
the South of France, Italy, and Spain.

CARLINES, or CARLIIVGS, in a ship,
two pieces of timber, lying fore and aft,
along from beam to beam, whereon the
ledges rest on which the planks of the
ship are fastened. All the carlings have
their ends let into the beams culvertail-
wise: they are directly over the keel,
and serve as a foundation for the whole
body of the ship.

CARMINATIVES, in pharmacy, me-
dicines used in cholics, or other flatulent

CAR

disorders, to dispel the wind. See PHA3-

CARMINE, a powder of a very beau-
tiful red colour, bordering upon a pur-
ple, and used by painters in miniature,
though but rarely, because of its great
price.

CARNATION, in botany. See DIAIT-

THUS.

CARNATION colour, among painters, is
understood of all the parts of a picture,
in general, which represent flesh, OP
which are naked and without drapery.

CARNELIAN. See CHALCEDONY.

CARNIVAL, or CARNAVAL, a time of
rejoicing, a season of mirth, observed
with great solemnity by the Italians, par-
ticularly at Venice, lasting from Twelfth-
day till Lent.

CARNIVOROUS, in zoology, an epi-
thet generally applied to animals of every
description that subsist for the most part,
or entirely, on animal food. In a more
limited sense we understand, by carnivo-
rous animals, those only of a savage and
voracious nature, assimilating in our ideas
some instinctive ferocity of character in
the manners of those creatures, when
seeking and attacking their prey, as well
as actually feeding on flesh. We natu-
rally consider, for this reason, among the
principal carnivorous animals, the lion,
the tiger, and the wolf; or among birds,
the eagle and the kite; with a host of
other rapacious creatures, upon which
nature has bestowed pre-eminent advan-
tages of courage, strength, and arms, to
aid them in seizing upon, and tearing in-
to pieces, those animals on which they
feed: they have either formidable canine
teeth or fangs; claws or talons ; the qua-
drupeds possessing both, and the birds
the latter. Fishes, with very few excep-
tions, are carnivorous, but their only of-
fensive weapons are the teeth, or in some
species the spines and prickles disposed
on various parts of the body. Quadru-
peds, that subsist both on flesh and vege-
tables, are more or less deficient with re-
spect to those characters, by jvhich carni-
vorous quadrupeds are known ; and those
still more so that subsist entirely on roots,
barks, fruits, grass, or other vegetables ;
the brutse have no cutting teeth either in
the upper or lower jaw ; the pecorae
have them only in the lower jaw ; and
the front teeth of the bellulx are obtuse.
The food of those animals is vegetables.
See MAMMALIA.

Carnivorous animals are characterised
both by their internal organization, and
their capacity and inclination for the de-
giructionof their prey; their teeth arp

sharp and pointed, even though situated
in the back part of the mouth ; and these
teeth denominated canine are so long in
most of the beasts of prey, that they pass
a considerable way beyond each other
when the jaws are closed. The distribu-
tion of the enamel, which is confined to
the superficies of the teeth, renders them
extremely hard, and this circumstance,
joined to an extraordinary bulk of those
muscles employed in raising the lower
jaw, gives to carnivorous quedrupeds
the power of breaking the strongest
bones.

The rapacious birds are distinguished
by a sharp hard bill, furnished on each
side with a pointed process, by which
they are enabled to tear asunder the
parts of the animals they feed upon. As
the digestion of animal substances is ac-
complished in a short time, the stomach
of the carnivorous tribes has a simple fi-
gure, without any processes or separations
of its cavity, to retain its contents, or to
delay their passage into the intestines ;
and as animal food furnishes hut little ex-
crement, the intestinal canal is short, and
either totally unprovided with those di-
latations which are so remarkable in ve-
getable eaters, or possesses them only in
a slight degree.

Carnivorous anivnals are further distin-
guished by the extraordinary strength of
their members, which are commonly fur-
nished with sharp claws ; these are so
contrived, both in the beasts of prey and
the accipitrine birds, that they turn in-
wards by the flexion of the limbs, or the
action of seizing anything, and are re-
tracted by the extension of the toes : thus,
giving facility and certainty to the cap-
ture and retention of fugitive animals.
The senses of vision and smell are particu-
larly acute in the carnivorous tribes, as it
is by means of them that they discover
or seek out their prey.

Carnivorous animals are usually cruel
and treacherous in their dispositions ;
they are even unsocial with respect to
their own species; and hence it is that
their numbers are so few, in comparison
to that of the graminivorous kind: if it
were not for this wise ordinance of na-
ture, the defenceless orders of animals
would soon be devoured, and the car-
nivorous would become the prey of each
other.

CARNOSITY, a term sometimes used
for an excrescence, or tubercle, in the
urethra, the neck of the bladder, &c.

CAROLINEA, in botany, a genus of
the Monadelphia Polyandria class and or-
der. Natural order of Columniferae. Mai-

CAR

vaceae, Jussieu. Essential character: mo-
nogynous; calyx simple, tubular, trun-
cate ; petals ensiform ; pome five-groov-
ed, two-celled. There are two species,
of which C. princeps is a large thornless
tree. Leaves alternate ; stipules two,
short, caducous. Flowers solitary, very
large and beautiful ; petals yellow. The
fruit has the appearance of that of the
chocolate, or of cucumber, with seeds
like almonds; native of Guiana.

C AROLUS, an ancient English broad
piece of gold, struck under Charles I. Its
value has of late been at twenty-three
shillings sterling, though at the time it
was coined it is said to have been rated
at only twenty shillings.

CAROLrs, a small copper coin, with a
little silver mixed with it, struck under
Charles VIII, of France

CAROTIDS, in anatomy, two arteries
of the neck, which convey the blood from
the aorta to the brain, one called the right
carotid, and the other the left. See ANA-
TOMY.

CAROXYLON, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Essential character : corolla five-
petalled ; nectary five-leaved, converg-
ing, inserted into the corolla; seed cloth-
ed. There is but one species, viz. C.
salsola; has a perennial root ; stem ar-
borescent, erect, very branching, naked.
Leaves on the branchlets, frequent, im-
bricate, sessile, subglobtilar, ovate, con-
cave within and smooth; axils loaded
with other leaves. In Africa they use the
ashes with mutton suet to make soap.

CARPENTRY, the art of cutting,
framing, and joining pieces of wood, for
the uses of building. It is one of the
sciences subservient to architecture, and
is divided into house carpentry and ship-
carpentry ; the first is employed in rais-
ing, roofing, flooring of houses, &c. and
the second in the building of ships,
barges, &c. The rules in carpentry are
much the same with those of joinery ; the
only difference is, that carpentry is used
in building, and joinery in furniture.

CARPESIUM, in botany, a genus of
the Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua class
and order. Natural order of Compound
flowers; division of Discoideae. Corym-
biferse, Jussieu. Essential character : ca-
lyx imbricate ; the outer scales reflex;
down none ; receptacle naked. There
are swo species, viz. C. cernuum, droop-
ing carpesium, is a native of the south of
France, Italy, Carniola, Austria, Switzer-
•Hjul, and Japan; and C. abrotanoides is
a native of China and Japan.

'.T: 'h'.s hrnutiful covering for

floors is of several descriptions, being-
made of various materials, and various
forms. The Turkey, Persia, and Brus-
sels carpets, are chiefly made of silk ;
the two former, owing to the vivid co-
lours with which the materials are dyed,
and the fineness of the texture, are pecu-
liarly rich and beautiful. We have vari-
ous extensive manufactories, of which
those at Wilton and Kidderminster may
be accounted the principal. Carpets are
there made in large pieces, suited to the
full extent of apartments ; while the
Scotch carpetting, being made in breadths
of not more than four feet, affords tht*
convenience of making up to any size ;
but it is not so lasting. The great car-
pets are made on frames and rollers, not
unlike those for tapestry, and under
similar guidance, where the pattern
is intricate. Carpet-making supports
many thousands of the industrious poor
of this country ; and being almost whol-
ly founded on the produce of our own
island, is of great importance as a national
benefit.

CARPHALEA, in .botany, a genus of
the Tetrandria Monogynia class and order,
corolla one-petalled, funnel-form, hairy
within; calyx four-cleft, with spatulate
scarious segments ; capsule two-celled,
two-valved, many-seeded. One species,
C. corymbosa, found in Madagascar.

CARPINUS, in botany, English horn-
beam, a genus of the Monoecia Polyandria
class and order. Natural order of Ainen-
taceae. Essential character ; calyx one-
leafed, with a ciliate scale ; corolla none ;
male stamens twenty ; female germs two,
with two styles on each ; nut ovate.
There are four species, of which C. be-
tulus, horn-beam, is very common in ma-
ny parts of England, but is rarely suffered
to grow as a timber tree, being generally
reduced to pollards by the country peo-
ple ; but where the young trees have
been properly treated, they have grown
to a large size, nearly seventy feet in
height, with large fine stems perfectly
straight and sound.

CARPODETUS, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Essential character ; calyx five-
toothed, fastened to the gerrn ; corolla
five-petalled ; stigma flat-headed ; berry
globular, five-celled. There is but one
species, viz. C, serratus, a native of New
Zealand.

CARR, among the ancients, a kind of
throne, mounted on wheels, and used in
triumphs and other solemn occasions. The
carr on medals, drawn by horses, lions,
or elephants, signifies a triumph, or an

CAR

apotheosis; sometimes a procession of the
images of the gods at a solemn supplica-
tion ; and sometimes of those of some il-
lustrious families at a funeral. The can-,
covered and drawn by mules, only signi-
fies a consecration, and the honour done
any one pf having his image carried at the
games of the circuLc

CARRIAGE, letter or bill of, a writing
given to a carrier, or the master of any
carriage, containing the number and qua-
lity of the pieces, bales, Sec. of merchan-
dises, which he is intrusted with, that he
may demand the payment of the carriage,
and that the person to whom they are ad-
dressed may see whether they are deli-
vered in the same number, and in as good
condition as they were given to the carrier.

CARRIAGE?/ a cannon, the frame or tim-
ber-work on which it is mounted, serving
to point it for shooting, or to carry it from
one place to another. It is made of two
planks of wood, commonly one half the
length of the gun, called the cheeks, and
joinedby three woode n transoms,strength-
ened with three bolts of iron. It is mount-
ed on two wheels ; but on a march has
two fore-wheels, with limbers added. The
principal parts of a carriage are, the
cheeks, transoms, bolts, plates, train
bands, bridge, bed, hooks, trunnion holes,
and capsquare.

CARRIAGES. This subject, in detail,
would form many an ample volume. The
great variety of opinions, the imperious
demands of locality, and the appropriation
to particular purposes, must inevitably
create a curious diversity in the practices
of a nation. Confining ourselves to gene-
ral principles, we shall discuss only those
points which serve as a general guide, and
may prove useful in giving the reader
some idea as to the several properties of
the vehicles now in use.

1. We consider ease of draught as in-
dispensible. For this purpose the fore-
wheels of a carriage should always be
sufficiently large to bring the centre of
the axle to an angle, of about fifteen de-
grees, with that part of the haime, or
collar-frame, on which the trace fixes ;
that being ascertained to be the best rela-
tive position between the animal and what
he has to draw at.

2. We look to proximity of rotation,
that is, the place where the wheel touches
the ground, and its relation to a perpen-
dicular draft from the croup of the horse,
as being an essential matter : for the draft
will assuredly be naore oppressive in pro-
portion as the point of rotation is removed.
Hence long shafts, great space between
the fore and hind wheels, and all the re-

presentatives of those primary errors,
should be, in toto, abolished.

3. We judge the size of wheels, that is,
the length of lever, by which they are
moved around their axis, to be of the
greatest moment.

4. Where a road is firm, we hold it ex-
pedient to reduce the bearing point, name-
ly, the edge of the wheel, into as small a.
diameter as may be found capable of sus-
taining the incumbent pressure.

5. Where roads are soft and quaggy, w«
deem the broad tire to be preferable;
both because it bears up the load, and
allows of less sinking, whereby consider,
able opposition would be created; and
that such a construction is more favour-
able to the track in which the carriage
may have often to travel.

6. The axis of every wheel ought to
move with as little friction as possible :
this may be effected by making the spin-
dle as small and as short as circumstances
may allow ; taking care to lubricate the
connecting parts well, so as not to allow
of the smallest tendency to adhesion.
Wheels intended for travelling over un-
equal surfaces should be dished, so that
the spokes may successively be upright
whenever they come under the axle. The
bend of each end of the axle downwards
is a convenience, and contributes to the
foregoing effect, while it causes^the up-
per parts of the wheels to diverge, and
gives more scope for the body of the ma-
chine : in some instances, where light but
bulky burthens are in question, this is a
desideratum; though it contracts the
space bet ween the points of rotation, and
renders the machine more liable to over-
turn. The load should generally be car-
ried more in the centre of four-wheeled
carriages than is usually done. Carmeti
have a great partiality for burthening the
fore- wheels : this is a most absurd prac-
tice, because they, being less in diame-
ter, are more subject to be impeded by
low obstacles than the hind wheels, which,
being larger, travel over ruts and clods
with much more facility. In regard to the
height of loads, it is proper to state, that
whenever a line drawn perpendicular to
the horizon, and touching the corner of
a square load, touches the ground on the
outside of the tire of the opposite wheel,
the carriage must overset, the line of
gravity then becoming exterior to the
support; and vice versa. From this we see,
that loads carried low are in general very
safe ; while such as are injudiciously ele-
vated, which too many of our stage-
coaches are, teem with danger. In two
wheel carriages, the load in going down

CAR

hill bears extremely heavy on the shaft-
horse : this should be obviated by cock-
ing the cart backwards, according to the
practice in the west of England.

CARRIER, laics relating to. Every per-
son carrying goods for hire is deemed a
carrier, and as such is liable in law for any
loss or damage that may happen to them
whilst in his custody. Waggoners, cap-
tains of ships, lightermen, 8tc. are there-
fore carriers; but a stage -coachman is
not within the custom as a carrier : nei-
ther are hackney-coachmen carriers with-
in the custom of the realm, so as to be
chargeable for the loss of goods, unless
they are expressly paid for that purpose,
for their undertaking is only to carry
the person. If a person take hire for
carrying goods, although he be not a
common carrier, he may nevertheless be
charged upon a special assumpsit; for
where hire is taken, a promise is implied ;
and where goods are delivered to a car-
rier, and he is robbed of them, he shall
be charged and answer for there, on ac-
count of the hire ; and the carrier can be
no loser, as he may recover against the
hundred.

Goods sent by a carrier cannot be dis-
trained for rent ; and any person carry-
ing goods for all persons indifferently is
to be deemed a common carrier, as far as
relates to this privilege. A delivery to a
servant is a delivery to the master, and if
goods are delivered to a carrier's porter,
and lost, an action will lie against the
carrier.

Where a carrier gives notice by print-
ed proposals that he will not be responsi-
ble for certain valuable goods if lost, if
more than the value of a sum specified,
unless entered and paid for as such, and
valuable goods of that description are de-
livered to him, by a person who knows
the conditions, but, concealing the value,
pays no more than the ordinary price of
carriage and booking, the carrier is, un-
der such circumstances, neither respon-
sible to the sum specified, nor liable to
repay the sum paid for carriage and book-
ing.

A carrier, who undertakes for hire to
carry goods, is bound to deliver them at
all events, unless damaged and destroyed
by the act of God, or the king's enemies ;
and if any accident, however inevitable,
happen through the intervention of hu-
man means, a carrier becomes responsible.

CARRONADE, a cannon of peculiar
construction, being much shorter and
lighter than the common cannon, and
having a chamber for the powder like a
jnortar ; they are generally of a large ca-

libre, and carried on the upper works, as
the poop and forecastle. They are nam-
ed from Carron in Scotland, the town in-
which they were first made.

CARTES (REKES DBS,) in biography.
Few persons have a higher claim to dis-
tinction than this philosopher ; we shall,
therefore, in the present article, inter-
weave an account of his system with that
of his life.

Des Cartes was a native of Tourainer
in France, and born in 1596. While a
child, he discovered an eager curiosity
to inquire into the nature and causes of
things, which procured him the appella-
tion of the young philosopher. At eight
years of age he was committed to the
care of a Jesuit, under whom he made
very uncommon proficiency. He soon
began to discover defects in existing sys-
tems, and hoped to be the means of
giving to science a new and more pleas-
ing aspect. After spending five years in
the study of the languages and polite
literature in general, he entered upon a
course of mathematics, logic, and morals,
according to the methods by which they
were then taught. With these he was
so much disgusted, that he determined to
frame for himself a brief system of rules
or canons of reasoning, in which he fol-
lowed the strict method of the geome-
tricians. He pursued the same plan
with respect to morals. After all, how-
ever, he was so little satisfied with his
own attainments, that he left college, la-
menting that the fruits of eight years'
study were only the full conviction, that
as yet he knew nothing with perfect clear-
ness and certainty. He even threw aside
his books, with a resolution to pursue no
other knowledge, than that which he
could find within himself and in the great
volume of nature. At the age of seven-
teen he was sent to Paris, where the
love of pleasure, for a moment, seemed to
overcome all desire of philosophical dis-
tinction, but an introduction to some
learned men recalled his attention to ma-
thematical studies: these he again prose-
cuted in solitude and silence for the
space of two years, after which he enter-
ed as a volunteer in the Dutch army, in
order that he might study the living world
as well as read books. In this situation he
wrote a dissertation to prove that brutes
are automata. From the Dutch army Des
Cartes passed over to the Bavarian service,
but wherever he went he conversed with
learned men, and rather appeared in the
character of a philosopher than that of a
soldier. In 1622 he quitted the army,
returned to his own country, with no

DES CARTES.

other profit, he said, than that he had
freed himselffrom many prejudices, and
rendered his mind more fit for the recep-
tion of truth. He fixed his residence at
Paris, and began to study the mathema-
tics, in hopes of discovering1 general prin-
ciples of relations, measures, and propor-
tions, applicable to all subjects, by means
of which truth might with certainty be
investigated, and the limits of knowledge
enlarged. From mathematics he turned
'his attention to ethical inquiries, and at-
tempted to raise a superstructure of mo-
Tals upon the foundation of natural sci-
ence, conceiving that there could be no
tetter means of discovering the true prin-
ciples and rules of action, than by con-
templating our own nature,and the nature
of the world around us. As the result of
these inquiries, he wrote a treatise on the
passions. After some time spent in Italy,
whither he went in pursuit of knowledge,
he returned again to Paris, and from
thence he went to Holland, with a view
of raising a new system of philosophy.
Here he chose retirement, as the best
means of forwarding the plans which he
hoped to execute. He employed himself
in investigating a proof from reason, inde-
pendently of revelation, of the fundamen-
tal principles of religion, and published
'* Philosophical Meditations on the First
Philosophy." At the same time he pur-
sued his physical inquiries, and published
a. treatise " On Meteors." He paid con-
siderable attention to medicine, anatomy,
and chemistry; and wrote also an astro-
nomical treatise on the system of the
world, which he suppressed, upon hear-
ing of the vile and infamous treatment
that Galileo had met with for his dis-
cussions on the same subject. See GA-
LILEO.

The Cartesian philosophy was first
taught in the schools of Deventer, 1633 :
it attracted many zealous admirers, and
excited against him a host of opponents.
The system of Des Cartes obtained so
much credit in Great Britain, that the
inventor was invited to settle in England,
as well by the king as by some of the
principal nobility. This invitation he
would probably have accepted, had not
the civil wars prevented Charles I. from
being able to render the philosopher all
the patronage which he had formerly
tendered him. At this period he was
forced into many disputes, in the course
of which, as well as by his collateral con-
duct, he displayed an eager desire to be.
considered the" father of a sect, and disco-

vers more jealousy and ambition than be-
came a philosopher.

During Des Cartes's residence in Hol-
land, he went occasionally to his native
Country, where, in 1643, he published an
abstract of his philosophy, under the title
of" Philosophical Specimens." He was
promised, on one of these visits, an annual
pension of 3000 livres, which he never re-
ceived. He was now invited by Christina,
Queen of Sweden, to visit Stockholm.
That learned princess had read with de-
light his treatise " On the Passions," and
was earnestly desirous to be instructed
by him in the principles of philosophy.
Des Cartes arrived at Stockholm in 1649,
where he received a most friendly and
respectfulreception from the enlightened
queen, who urged him to settle in her
kingdom, and assist her in establishing-
an academy of sciences. He had, how-
ever, been scarcely four months in that
severe climate, when, in his visits to the
sovereign, whom he instructed in the
principles of philosophy, he caught a
cold, which brought on an inflammation
in his lungs, that put a period to his life,
in 1650. His remains were interred in
the cemetery for foreigners, and a long
eulogium inscribed on his tomb : but in
1666 his bones were transported to
France, and placed, with all the circum-
stances of pomp, in the church of St.
Genevieve. Such was the life of this great
man : his writings and system require a
more detailed account.

On the subject of logic, he says, no-
thing is ever to be admitted astrue,which
is not certainly and evidently known
to be so, and which cannot be possibly
doubted. In proving any truth, the ideas
are always to be brought forward in a
certain order, beginning from things the
most simple, and advancing by regular
steps to those which are more complex
and difficult. With regard to metaphy-
sics, Des Cartes says, that since man is
under the influence of prejudice, he
ought, once in his life, to doubt of every
thing ; even whether sensible objects
have a real existence ; and also of the
truth of mathematical axioms. The first
principle of the Cartesian philosophy is

this, " I THINK, THEREFORE I AM :" this

is the foundation of Des Cartes's meta-
physics : that on which his physics is
built is, " THAT NOTHING EXISTS BUT
SUBSTANCES." Substance he makes of
two kuids ; the one that thinks, the other
is «-\ -iMi't'-'d : so that actual thought and
actual extension make the essence of

DES CARTES.

substance. The essence of matterbeing
thus fixed in extension, Des Cartes con-
cludes that there is no vacuum, nor any
possibility of it in nature, but that the
universe is absolutely full : by this princi-
ple, mere space is quite excluded ; for
extension being implied in the idea of
space, matter is so too.

Des Cartes defines motion to be the
translation of a body from the neighbour-
hood of others that are in contact with
it, and considered as at rest, to the neigh-
bourhood of other bodies ; by which he
destroys the distinction between motion
that is absolute or real, and that which
is relative or apparent. He maintains,that
the same quantity of motion is always
preserved in the universe, because God
must be supposed to act in the most
constant and immutable manner : and
hence also he deduces his three laws of
motion.

Upon these principles Des Cartes ex-
plains mechanically how the world was
formed, and how the present phenomena
of nature came to arise. He supposes
that God created matter of an indefinite
extension, which he separated into small
square portions or masses, full of angles ;
that he impressed two motions on this
matter ; the one, by which each part re-
volved about its own centre; and another,
by which an assemblage or system of
them turned round a common centre.
From whence arose as many different vor-
tices, or eddies, as there were different
masses of matter thus moving about com-
mon centres.

The consequence of these motions in
each vortex, according to Des Cartes, is
as follows : the parts of matter could not
thus move and revolve amongst one ano-
ther, without having their angles gradual-
ly broken : and this continual friction of
parts and angles must produce three ele-
ments : the first of these, an infinitely fine
dust formed of the angles broken off; the
second, the spheres remaining, after all
the angular parts are thus removed ; and
those particles not yet rendered smooth
and spherical, but still retaining some of
their angles, and hamous parts, form the
third element.

Now the first or subtilest element, ac-
cording to the laws of motion, must oc-
cupy the centre of each system, or vortex,
by reason of the smallness of its parts ;
and this is the matter which constitutes
the sun and the fixed stars above, and tfee
fire below. The second element, made
up of spheres, forms the atmosphere,
and all the matter between the earth and

the fixed stars : in such sort, that the
largest spheres are always next the cir-
cumference of the vortex, and the small-
est next its centre. The third element,
formed of the irregular particles, is the
matter that composes the earth, and all
terrestrial bodies, together with comets,
spots in the sun, &c.

He accounts for the gravity of terres-
trial bodies from the centrifugal force of
the ether revolving round the earth: and
upon the same general principles he pre-
tends to explain the phenomena of the
magnet, and to account for all the other
operations in nature.

Of this great man many eulogia have
been published, by persons very capable
of appreciating his worth and his talents.
We shall mention the opinion entertained
of him by two orthee of our own coun-
trymen.

Dr. Barrow, in his " Opuscula," ob-
serves, that Des Cartes was doubtless a
very ingenious man, and a real philoso-
pher, and one who seems to have brought
those assistances to that part of philoso-
phy relating to matter and motion, which
perhaps no one had done before; namely,
a great skill in mathematics ; a mind ha-
bituated, both by nature and custom, to
profound meditation; a judgment exempt
from all prejudices and popular errors,
and furnished with a good number of cer-
tain und select experiments; a great deal
of leisure ; an entire disengagement, by
his own choice, from the reading of use-
less books,and the avocations of life: with
an incomparable acuteness of wit, and an
excellent talent of thinking clearly and
distinctly, and of expressing his thoughts
with the utmost perspicuity.

Dr. Halley, in a paper concerning op-
tics, affirms that Des Cartes was the first,
who, in modern times, discovered the
laws of refraction, and brought dioptrics
to a science. And Dr. Keil says, that
Des Cartes was so far from applying geo-
metry and observations to natural philo-
sophy, that his whole system is but one
continued blunder, on account of his ne-
gligence in that point ; which he could
easily prove, by showing that his theory
of the vortices, upon which his system is
founded, is absolutely false, for that New-
ton has shewn that the periodical times
of all bodies that swim in vortices must
be directly as the squares of their dis-
tances fi'om the centre of them ; but it
is evident, from observations, that the
planets, in moving round the sun, ob-
serve a law quite different from this ; for
the squares of their periodical times are

CAR

always as the cubes of their distances :
and therefore, since they do not observe
that law, which of necessity they must,
if they swim in a vortex, it is a demon-
stration, that there are no vortices is
which the planets are carried round the
sun.

CARTHAMUS, in botany, English has-
tard saffron, a genus of the Syngenesia
Polygamia ./Equalis class and order. —
Natural order of Composite, or com-
pound flowers, and division of Capitatae.
Cinarocephalse, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter: calyx ovate, imbricate with scales,
which at the end are subovate-foliaceous.
There are ten species, of which C. tinc-
torius, officinal bastard saffron, is an an-
nual plant ; it is two feet and a half high,
dividing upwards into many branches,
with ovate-pointed sessile leaves. The
flowers grow single at the extremity of
each branch, the heads are large, inclos-
ed in a scaly calyx. It flowers in July
and August. It grows naturally in Egypt
and in some of the warm parts of Asia.

CARTILAGE, in anatomy, a body ap-
proaching much to the nature of bones,
bee Ax ATOMY.

Cartilage has so much induration, as to
require the exertion of some force to
bend it ; and in a morbid state it fre-
quently becomes ossified. Bone, on the
other hand, is, in the first stages of its
growth, cartilaginous ; it sometimes be-
comes so from disease. A cartilaginous
matter exists in the hardest bones, and
i'orms their basis : from which the other
ingredients, the gelatine and earthy mat-
ter, may be removed. Cartilages are
solid, but easily cut : they are elastic,
dense, white, and semi-transparent.
They cover the articulated extremities of
bones, and sometimes form distinct parts.
The matter of cartilage has been exa-
mined by Mr Hatchett, who considers it
as indurated albumen.

CARTILAGINOUS fishes, those with
cartilaginous instead of bony skeletons :
they constitute an order of fishes, an-
swering to the Chondropterygious and
Brancliiostegious of Linmeus. See Ciiox-

JUHOPTKBYGIOUS.

CARTOX, or CAUTOOS, in painting, a
design drawn on strong paper, to be af-
terwards traced through, and transferred
on the fresh plaster of a wall, to be paint-
ed in fresco.

In Italian, whence the term seems to
be derived, cartone, or cartoni, signifying
large paper, denotes several sheets of
paper pasted on canvas, on which large

VOL.TI1.

designs are made, whether coloured, or
with chalks only. Of these cartoons
there are many by Dominichino Leonar-
do da Vinci, Andrea Mantegna, Michael
Angelo, &c. — but the most celebrated
performances of this kind are the car-
toons of Raphael, or Raffaello Sanzio Da
Urbino, which are seven in number, and
form only a small part of the sacred his-
torical designs, executed by this famous
artist while engaged in the chambers of
the Vatican, under the auspices of Pope
Julius II. and Leo X. As soon as they
were finished they were sent to Flan-
ders, to be copied in tapestry, for adorn-
ing the pontifical apartments ; but the
tapestries were not conveyed to Rome
till after the decease of Raphael, and
probably not before the dreadful sack of
that city in 1527, under the pontificate of
Clement VII. — when Raphael's scholars
having fled from thence, none were left
to enquire after the original cartoons,
which lay neglected in the store-rooms
of the manufactory. The revolution that
happened soon after in the Low Coun-
tries prevented their being noticed dur-
ing a period, in which works of art were
wholly neglected. These seven, how-
ever,, escaped the wreck of the others,
which were torn in pieces, and of which
some fragments remain in different col-
lections. These were purchased by Ru-
bens for Charles I. but they had been,
much injured. In this state they also
fortunately escaped being sold in the
royal collection, by the disproportionate
appraisement of these seven at 300/. ;
and the nine pieces, which were the tri-
umph of Julius Cxsar, by Andrea Man-
tegna, appraised at 1000/. The cartoons
seem to have been little noticed, till King-
William III. built a gallery for the pur-
pose of receiving them at Hampton court.
After having suffered much from the
damps of the situation in which they
were placed, they were removed by or-
der of his present Majesty, King George
111. to the Queen's Palace at Buckingham
House, and from thence to the Castle at
Windsor. His Majesty is entitled to a
tribute of respect and applause for his
care in preserving these precious trea-
sures. They have been long deservedly
held in high estimation throughout Eu-
rope, by all authors of refined taste, and
by all the admirers of the art of design,
for their various and matchless merit,
particularly with regard to the inven-
tion, and to the noble expression of such
a variety of characters, countenances.,
X

CAR

and attitudes as they are differently af-
fected and suitably engaged, in every
composition.

CARTOUCHE, in architecture, and
sculpture, an ornament representing a
scroll of paper. It is usually a flat mem-
ber, with wavings, to represent some
inscription, device, cypher, or ornament
of armoury. They are, in architecture,
much the same as modillions ; only these
are set under the cornice in wainscot-
ting, and those under the cornice at the
eaves of a house.

CARTOUCHE, in the military art, a case
of wood, about three inches thick at the
bottom, girt with marlin, holding about
four hundred musket balls, besides six or
eight balls of iron, of a pound weight, to
be tired out of a howitzer, for the defence
of a pass, &c.

A cartouche is sometimes made of a
globular form, and filled with a ball of a
pound weight; and sometimes it is made
for the guns, being of ball of half or quar-
ter pound weight, according to the nature
of the gun, tied in form of a bunch of
grapes, on a tompion of wood, and coated
over.

CARTRIDGE, in the military art, a
case of paste board or parchment, holding
the exact charge of a fire arm. Those
for muskets, carabines, and pistols, hold
both the powder and ball for the charge :
and those of cannon and mortars are
usually in cases of pasteboard or tin, some-
times of wood, half a foot long, adapted
to the calibre of the piece.

CARTRIDGE boxt a case of wood or turn-
ed iron, covered with leather, holding a
dozen musket cartridges. It is worn
upon a belt, and hangs a little lower than
the right pocket hole.

CARTS, laws relating to. Carts for the
carriage of any thing, to and from any
place where the streets are paved within
the bills of mortality, shall contain six
inches in the felly : the name of the
owner must be on some conspicuous part,
and his name entered with the commis-
sioners of the hackney coaches, under
the penalty of 40s. and any person may
seize and detain such cart till the penalty
is paid. On changing property, the names
are to be altered, and new entries made.
Every driver of a cart riding upon it,
without having a person on foot to guide
it, shall forfeit 20s. if he is the owner, and
10s. if he is the servant only.

CARUM, in botany, English caraway,
a genus of the Pentandria Digynia class
and order. Natural order of Umbellatac.
Essential character : fruit ovate, oblong,
striated ; involucre, one-leaved ; petals

keeled, inHex-emarginate. There is but
one species, viz. C. carui, common cara-
way, a biennial plant ; it has a taper root
like a parsnip, but much smaller, run-
ning deep into the ground, sending out
many small fibres, and having a strong
aromatic taste. It is particularly cultivat-
ed in Essex.

CARUNCULA, in anatomy, a term de-
noting a little piece of flesh, and applied
to several parts of the bocty : thus, Carun-
cula lacrymalis, a little eminence situated
in the larger angle, or canthus of the eye,
where there are also sometimes hairs and
certain little glands.

CARUS, in midicine, a sudden depri-
vation of sense and motion, affecting the
whole body.

CARYATIDES, or CARIATES, in archi-
tecture, a style of columns or pilasters,
invented by the Greeks, under the figure
of women, dressed in long robes, after
the manner of the Carian people, and
serving instead of columns, to support
the entablature. The caryatides should
always have their legs pretty close to
each other, and even across, or one
athwart the other ; their arms laid flat to
their bodies, or to the head ; and as little
spread as possible : when they are in-
sulated, they should never have any great
weight to support; and they ought al-
ways to appear in characters proper to
the place they are used in.

CARYOCAR, in botany, a genus of the
Polyandria Tetragynia class and order.
Essential character: calyx five-parted;
petals five ; styles usually four ; drupe
with four nuts, reticulated with furrows.
There is but one species, viz, C. nticife-
rum, a tall tree, with ternate leaves.
Native of Berbice and Essequebo.

CARYOPHYLLJEUS, in natural his-
tory, a genus of the Vermes Intestina.
Body round ; mouth dilated and fringed.
One species, riz. C. piscium, which in-
habits the intestines of various fresh wa-
ter fish, particularly the carp, tench, and
bream. The body is of a clay colour,
about an inch long, rounded at the hind
part and broader before.

CARYOPHYLLUS, in botany, English
clove-tree, a genus of the Polyandria Mono-
gynia class and order. Natural order of
Hesperidese. Myrti, Jussieu. Essential
character : corolla four-petalled ; calyx
four-leaved, duplicate ; berry one-seed-
ed, inferior. One species, viz. C. aroma-
ticus, clove-tree, rises to the height of a
common apple-tree, but the trunk gene-
rally divides at about four or five feet
from the ground into three or four large
limbs which grow erect, and are cover-

CAS

CAB

ed with a thin smooth bark, which ad-
heres closely to the wood: the leaves
are like those of the bay-tree, and are
placed opposite on the branches. The
flowers are produced in loose bunches
at the end of the branches ; they are
small, white, and have a great number of
stamens, which are much longer than the
petals. The flowers are succeeded by
oval berries, which are crowned by the
calyx, divided into four parts, spreading
flat on the top of the fruit : it is the young
fruit, beaten from the trees before they
are halt grown, which are the cloves used
all over Europe. It is found in all the
Moluccas, in many of the South Sea
islands, and in New Guinea.

CAKYOTA, in botany, a genus of the
Monoecia Polyandria class and order.
Natural order of Palms. Essential cha-
racter : male, calyx common ; corolla tri-
partite ; stamens very many : female, ca-
lyx as in the male ; corolla tripartite ;
pistil one ; berry dispermous. There are
two species. C. urens is a lofty palm-
tree ; the trunk is very large, covered
with a sort of cinereous crust, which is
quite smooth. The flowers are in long
pendulous spikes, on which they grow in
pairs. The. corolla, which is sometimes
bipartite, but commonly tripartite, is at
first green, then red or purple, and final-
ly yellow. C. mitis is about fifteen feet in
height, a most beautiful plant, growing in
the woods of Cochinchina.

CASCADE, a steep fall of water from
a higher into a lower place. They are
either natural, as that of Trivoli, &c. or
artificial, as those of Versailles, &c. and
either falling with gentle descent, as
those of Sceaux ; or in form of a buffet,
as at Trianon ; or down steps, in form of
a perron, as at St. Cloud ; or from basin
to basin, &c.

CASE, among grammarians, implies
the different inflections or terminations
of nouns, serving to express the different
relations they bear to each other, and to
the things they represent. There is
great diversity among grammarians, with
regard to the nature and number of cases;
they generally find six, even in most of
the modern languages, which they call
the nominative, genitive, dative, accusa-
tive, vocative, and ablative ; but this
seems in compliance with their own ideas
of the Greek and Latin, which they trans-
fer to their own languages. The termi-
nation is not the sole criterion of a case ;
for though some authors reckon five cases
of nouns in the Greek, and six in Latin,
yet several of these cases are frequently

alike : as the genitive and dative singular
of the first and fifth declensions of the
Latin ; the dative and ablative plural of
all the declensions, &c. ; the genitive and
dative dual of the Greek, &c. The Eng-
lish, and many other modern languages,
express the various relations, not by
changes in the terminations, as the an-
cients, but by the apposition of articles.
Grammarians, however, admit of three
cases in the English nouns ; viz. the
nominative, possessive, and objective.
The nominative expresses simply the
name of a thing, or the subject of the
verb ; the possessive expresses the rela-
tion of property or possession ; and the
objective expresses the object of an ac-
tion, or of a relation, and follows a verb
active or a preposition.

CASK, among printers, denotes a slop-
ing frame, divided into several compart-
ments, containing a number of types or
letters of the same kind. From these
compartments the compositor takes out
each letter as he wants it, to compose a
page or form. Thus they say, a case of
pica, of Greek, &c. Earl Stanhope, who
has made great improvements in the
printing-press, has contrived a case,
which is said to be much more conve-
nient to the workmen than those in com-
mon use.

CASE hardening, a method of preparing
iron, so as to render its outer surface
hard, and capable of resisting any edged
tool. The process of case-hardening,
which is, in truth, a superficial conversion
of iron into steel, depends on the cement-
ation of it with vegetable or animal coals.
We have seen small articles of iron con-
verted into steel, by heating it in a cruci-
ble with pieces of leather, horn, &c. The
whole must be raised to a great heat by
means of a forge, furnace, &c. See IRON.

CAsv-shot, in the military art, musket
ball, stones, old iron, 8tc. put into cases,
and shot out of great guns.

CASERNS, in fortification, lodgings
built in garrison towns, generally near
the rampart, or in the waste places of the
town, for lodging the soldiers of the gar-
rison. There are usually two beds in
each casern for six soldiers to lie, who
mount the guard alternately ; the third
part being always on duty.

CASH, in the commercial style, signi-
fies the stock of money which a merchant,
trader, or banker, has at his disposal, in
order to trade.

CASHEW nut, the fruit of the acajou
tree, reckoned by Linnaeus a species of
anacardium. See A^ACARDIUM.

CAS

CASHIER, a person who Is entrusted
\vith the cash of some public company.

CASI, in the Persian policy, one of the
two judges under the nadab, who decide
all religious matters, grant all divorces,
and are present at all public acts, having
deputies in all the cities of the kingdom.
See the article NADAB.

CASING of limber work, among build-
ers, is the plastering a house all over on
the outside with mortar, and then strik-
ing it while wet, by a ruler, with the cor-
ner of a trowel, to make it resemble the
joints of free-stone. Some direct it to
be done upon heart laths, because tlie
mortar would, in a little time, decay the
sap laths ; and to lay on the mortar in two
thicknesses, viz. a second before the first
is dry ; this process is commonly called
rough-casting.

. CASSAVA, in chemistry, a species of
starch prepared from the roots of the
jatropha manihat, an American plant.
They are peeled and pressed, and the
juice that is forced out is a deadly poison,
and employed by the Indians to poison
their arrows. It deposits, however, a
\vhite starch, which, when properly wash-
ed, is perfectly innocent, and when dried,
is used in the preparation of bread.

CASSIA, in botany, a genus of the
Decandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Lomentaceae. Legumi-
noste, Jussieu. Essential character : calyx
pentaphyllous ; petals five; the three su-
perjor anthers sterile ; the three inferior
beaked ; legume. There are 51 species,
of which C. diphylla, two-leaved cassia, is
:i shrub with a round stem ; two semi-
orbiculate, obtuse, striated leaves on a
short petiole ; stipules covering the whole
branches. It is an annual. Native of the
West Indies. Some of the cassias are,
however, very tall trees, as the C. fistula,
Ale xandrian purging cassia, cassia stick
tree, or pudding pipe tree, which is 50
feet high, with a large trunk dividing
into many branches. Native of both In-
dies. C. senna, Egyptian cassia, or senna,
the plant which produces the leaves com-
monly known in medicine by the name
of senna, is an annual : it rises with an
upright branching stalk, a foot high.
It grows naturally in Persia, Syria, and
Arabia, whence the leaves are brought,
dried, and picked from the stalks, to
Alexandria in Egypt, and being thence
annually imported into Europe, it has the
title Alexandrian added to it.

CASSIDA, in natural history, a genus
of Coleopterous insects, which, accord-
ing to Linnjeus, have moniliform anten-
nae, that become rather thicker towards

the end : thorax and wing-cases with a
broad margin, the former fiat, and form-
ing a kind of shield, beneath which the
head is concealed. There are about 90
species.

The rotundate figure of the body,
gibbous back, and flattened surface be-
neath, are a strong criterion of this ge-
nus. The surface above is commonly
smooth, and in some species glossy ;
eyes oval, and placed near each other ;
antennze inserted between the eyes :
scutel triangular and small ; wing-cases
same length as the abdomen ; legs short,
thighs compressed, shanks rounded, and
the tarsi consisting of four joints. Many
of the species are very beautiful when
alive, some of which retain their bril-
liancy of colours in the height of perfec-
tion after death ; in others, however, and
those especially of a small size, these
are altogether evanescent, their rich me-
tallic or golden hues fading as the insect
dies, and totally disappearing in the dried
specimens. Cassidze, immersed in spirit
of wine alive, are observed to retain the
splendour of those golden hues for years,
in as high perfection as they appear in
the living insect ; but if taken out, and
allowed to dry, these change colour, in
the same manner as the insect would in
dying- without being steeped in spirits.
For immediate observation, the true co-
lours of the living insect may, however,
be revived in the dried specimens at any
time, by leaving them for the space of
15 or 20 minutes in warm water ; the
colours re-appearing while the insect is
kept moist, and fading again as the insect
dries.

The larvae of the cassidae are common-
ly found concealed on the under surface
of the leaves of the plants on which they
feed, and often hide themselves under a
cover of their own excrements, which
they support in the air above their bo-
dies by means of their lateral spines, and
the bristles at the extremity of their tail,
to shelter themselves from the sun and
rain. The larvae cast their skins several
times before they pass into the pupa state.
The perfect female insect deposits the
eggs in regular order on the leaves of
plants, and covers them with excrements
to conceal them. The common English
name of the insects of this tribe is the
tortoise beetle. We have only an incon-
siderable number of the species indige-
nous to this country, and those only of a
small size : many of the large kinds,
and those distinguished for their vivid
hues and colours, are natives of South
America.

CAS

GASS1XE, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Trigynia class anil order. Na-
tural order of Dtimosae. Rhamni, Jus-
sieu. Essential character: calyx quin-
quepartite ; petals five ; berry trisper-
mous. There are four species, of which
C. Capensis, Cape cassine, or phillyrea,
I'.as a woody stulk, which in this country
seldom rises more than six feet high,
sending- out many branches, covered
with a purplish bark. The flowers are
produced in roundish bunches from the
side and at the end of the branches ; they
are while, and have five small petals
spreading open ; germ roundish, crown-
ed by a bifid or trifid stigrna. This shrub
is a native of the Cape.

CASSIXI (JOHN DOMIXTC,) an eminent
astronomer, was born of noble parents,
at a town in Piedmont in Italy, June 8,
1625. After laying a proper foundation
in his studies at home, he was sent to
continue them in a college of Jesuits at
Genoa. He had an uncommon turn for
Latin poetry, which he exercised so very
early, that some of his poems were pub-
lished when he was but 11 years old. At
length he met with books of astronomy,
which he read with great eagerness.
Pursuing the bent of his inclinations in
this way, in a short time he made so
amazing a progress, that in 1650 the se-
nate of Bologna invited him to be their
public mathematical professor. Cassini
was but 25 years of age when lie went to
Bologna, where he taught mathematics,
and made observations upon the heavens,
with great care and assiduity. In 1652 a
comet appeared, which he observed with
great accuracy ; and he discovered that
comets were not bodies accidentally ge-
nerated in the atmosphere, as had been
supposed, but of the same nature, and
probably governed by the same law, as
the planets. The same year he resolved
an astronomical problem, which Kepler
and Bulliald had given up as insolvable ;
viz. to determine geometrically the apo-
gee and eccentricity of a planet, from its
true and mean place. In 1653, when a
church in Bologna was repaired and en-
larged, he obtained leave of the senate to
correct and settle a meridian line, which
had been drawn by an astronomer in
1575. In 1657 he attended as an assistant
to a nobleman, who was sent to Rome to
compose some differences which had
arisen between Bologna and Ferrara,
from the inundations of the Po ; and he
shewed so much skill and judgment in
the management of the affair, that in
1663 the Pope's brother appointed him
inspector-general of the fortifications of

the castle of Urbino; and he had after-
ward committed to him the care of all
the rivers in the ecclesiastical state.

In the mean time he did not neglect his
astronomical studies, and made several
discoveries relating to the planets .Mars
and Venus, particularly the revolution
of Mars upon his own axis ; but the point
he had chiefly in view was, to settle an
accurate theory of Jupiter's satellites ;
which, after much labour and observa-
tion, he happily effected, and published
it at Rome, among other astronomical
pieces, in 1666.

Picard, the French astronomer, get-
ting Cassini's tables of Jupiter's satellites,
found them so very exact, that he con-
ceived the highest opinion of his skill;
and from that time his fame increased so
fast in France, that the government de-
sired to have him a member of the aca-
demy. Cassini however could not leave
his station without leave of his superiors;
and therefore the king, Lewis the XlVth,
requested of the Pope, and the senate of
Bologna, that Cassini might be permit-
ted to come into France. Leave was
granted for six years, and he came to Pa-
ris in the beginning of 1669, where he
was immediately made the king's astro-
nomer. When this term of six years was
near expiring, the Pope and the senate
of Bologna insisted upon his return, on
pain of forfeiting his revenues and emo-
luments, which had hitherto been remit-
ted to him : but the minister Colbert pre-
vailed on him to stay, and he was natura-
lized in 1673; the same year also in
which he was married.

The Royal Observatory of Paris had
been finished some time, and Cassini was
appointed to be the first inhabiter ;
which he took possession of in Septem-
ber, 1671, when he set himself with fresh
alacrity to attend the duties of his pro-
fession. In 1672 he endeavoured to de-
termine the parallax of Mars and the
Sun ; and in 1677 he proved that the di-
urnal rotation of Jupiter round his axis
was performed in 9 hours 58 minutes,
from the motion of a spot in one of his
larger belts : also in 1684 he discovered
four satellites of Saturn, besides that
which Huygens had found out. In 1693
he published a new edition of his " Ta-
bles of Jupiter's Satellites," corrected by
later observations. In 1695 he took a
journey to Bologna, to examine the me-
ridian line which he had fixed there in
1655 ; and he shewed, in the presence
of eminent mathematicians, that it had
not varied in the least during that 40
years. In 1700 he continued the meri-

CAS

dian line through France, which Picard
had begun, to the very southern limits of
that country.

After our author had resided at the
Royal Observatory for more than 40
years, making many excellent and use-
ful discoveries, which he published from
time to time, he died September the 14th,
1712, at 87 years of age ; and was suc-
ceeded by his son James Cassini.

CASSINI (JAMES.) a celebrated French
astronomer, and member of the several
Academies of Sciences of France, Eng-
land, Prussia, and Bologna, was born at
Paris, Feburary 18,1677, beingthe young-
er son of John Dominic Cassini, above
mentioned, whom he succeeded as as-
tronomer at the Royal Observatory, the
elder son having lost his life at the battle
of La Hogue.

After his first studies in his father's
house, in which it is not to be supposed
that mathematics and astronomy were
neglected, he was sent to study philoso-
phy at the Mazarine college, where the
celebrated Varignon was then professor
of mathematics ; from whose assistance
young Cassini profited so well, that at 15
years of age he supported a mathemati-
cal thesis with great honour. At the age
of 17 he was admitted a member of the
Academy of Sciences ; and the same year
he accompanied his father in his journey
to Italy, where he assisted him in the
verification of the meridian at Bologna,
and other measurements.

In 1712 he succeeded his father as as-
tronomer royal at the Observatory. In
1717 he gave to the academy his re-
searches on the distance of the fixed stars,
in which he showed that the whole annu-
lar orbit of near 200 millions of miles dia-
meter is but as a point in comparison of
that distance. The same year he com-
municated also his discoveries concerning
the inclination of the orbits of the satel-
lites in general, and especially of those of
Saturn's satellites and ring. In 1725 he
undertook to determine the cause of the
moon's libration, by which she shows
sometimes a little towards one side, and
sometimes a little on the other, of that
half which is commonly behind or hid
from our view.

In 1732 an important question in astro-
nomy exercised the ingenuity of our au-
thor. His father had determined, by his
observations, that the planet Venus re-
volved about her axis in the space of
23 hours : and M. Bianchini had publish-
ed a work in 1729, in which he settled
the period of the same revolution at 24

days 8 hours. From an examination ot
Bianchini's observations, which were up-
on the spots in Venus, he discovered that
he had intermitted his observations for
the space of three hours, from which
cause he had probably mistaken new spots
for the old ones, and so had been led into
the mistake. He soon afterwards deter-
mined the nature and quantity of the ac-
celeration of the motion of Jupiter at
half a second per year, and of that of the
retardation of Saturn at two minutes per
year ; that these quantities would go on
increasing for 2000 years, and then would
decrease again. In 1740 he published his
" Astronomical Tables," and his " Ele-
ments of Astronomy;" which were very
extensive and accurate works.

Although astronomy was the principal
object of our author's consideration, he
did not confine himself absolutely to that
branch, but made occasional excursions
into other fields. We owe also to him, for
example, experiments on electricity, or
the light produced by bodies by friction;
experiments on the recoil of fire-arms ;
researches on the rise of the mercury in
the barometer at different heights above
the level of the sea; reflections on the
perfecting of burning-glasses, and other
memoirs.

After a long and laborious life our au-
thor, Jarnes Cassini, lost his life by a fall,
in April 1756, in the 80th year of his age,
and was succeeded in the Academy and
Observatory by his second son, Caesar
Franc. ois de Thury ; who also distinguish-
ed himself in the sciences connected with
astronomy ; and, as well as his father and
grandfather, published many valuable
works. He died in 1784, of the small
pox, and was succeeded by his only son
count John Dominic Cassini.

CASSIOPEIA, in astronomy, a con-
stellation of the northern hemisphere, si-
tuated opposite to the Great Bear, on the
other side of the pole. See ASTRONOMY.

In the year 1572, a remarkable new star
appeared in this constellation, surpassing
Sirius or Lyra in brightness and magni-
tude. It appeared even bigger than Ju-
piter, which, at that time, was near his
perigee, and by some was thought equal
to Venus, when she is in her greatest lus-
tre; but in a month it began to diminish
in lustre, and in about eighteen months
entirely disappeared.

It alarmed all the astronomers of that
age, many of whom wrote dissertations
on it ; among the rest, Tycho Brahe, Kep-
ler, Maurolycus, Lycetus, Gramineus,
&c. Beza, the Landgrave of Hesse, Rosa,

CAS

&c. wrote to prove it a comet, and the
same which appeared to the Magi at the
birth of Jesus Christ, and that it came to
declare his second coming : they were
answered on this subject by Tycho. Se-
veral astronomers are of opinion,that this
star has a periodical return, which Keill
and others have conjectured to happen
every 150 years. Mr. Pigott adopts the
same opinion ; and he accounts for its not
being noticed at the completion of every
term, by its variable lustre at different
periods, so that it may sometimes increase
only to the ninth magnitude ; and if this
be the case, its period is probably much
shorter.

CASSIUS, precipitate of, obtained from
the muriate of gold by the means of tin.
It is highly valued for the beauty of the
colour which it gives to glass or enamel.
It may be obtained by simply immersing
a plate of tin in a dilute solution of muri-
ate of gold : but the usual mode is to dis-
solve pure gold in a nitro- muriatic acid,
composed of three parts of nitric acid and
one of the muriatic. The tin is prepared
by dissolving it, without heat, in an acid
composed of two parts of nitric and one
of muriatic acid, previously diluted with
an equal weight of water. This solution
being saturated, is diluted with one hun-
dred parts of water, to which the solution
of gold, in quantity equal to half the quan-
tity of solution of tin, is added : the liquor
becomes of a beautiful purplish red co-
lour, and a precipitate subsides, which is
to be washed and dried. This is the only
preparation capable of giving a red co-
lour to glass, which then serves as an
imitation of the ruby.

CASSYTA, in botany, a genus of tiie
Enneandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character : corol calycine, sex-
partite ; nectary of three truncate glands,
surrounding the receptacle; interior fila-
ments glanduliferous : drupe monosper-
mous. There are but two species, of
which C. filiformis is a plant which rises
with taper succulent slalks, dividing into
many slender succulent branches ; these
come out frequently by threes or fours at
the same joint, afterward they send out
side brandies singly, without order, and
become very bushy ; the flowers come out
on the side of the branches, having no
calyx ; the corolla is oval, white, with a
small tincture of red, opening like a na-
vel at the top, including the germ, sta-
men, style, and nectareous glands so
closely, as not to be discovered till the
corolla is cut open. This plant grows
naturallv in both Indies.

CAST, among the Hindoos, denotes a
tribe or number of families of the same
rank and profession. There are in India
four principal casts : the first is called
the cast of " Brahmins," from the mouth
or wisdom, and deemed the most sacred.
These are to teach the principles of reli-
gion, to perform its functions, and to cul-
tivate the sciences. They are the priests,
the instructors, and philosophers of the
nation. The second order called " Cheh-
teree," from arms or strength ; to draw
the bow, to fight, to govern : these are
entrusted with the government and de-
fence of the state. The third order call-
ed "Bice," from the belly or nourish-
ment, are to provide the necessaries of
life by agriculture and traffic ; these are
composed of husbandmen and merchants.
The fourth class denominated " Sooder,"
from the feet or subjection; to labour,
or serve, consisting of artisans, labour-
ers, and servants. Besides these, there
is a fifth class, denominated " Burrun
Sunker," supposed to be the illicit union
between persons of different casts : they
are mostly dealers in petty articles of re-
tail trade.

CAST iron. See IRON.

CASTILLEIA, in botany, so named in
memory of Castilleius, a botanist of Ca-
diz, a genus of the Didynamia Angios-
permia class and order. Natural order
of Personatx. Pediculares, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : calyx tubular, com-
pressed ; upper lip bifid, lower none ;
corol lower, lip trifid, with two glands
between the segments ; capsules two-
celled. There are two species, C. fissi-
folia and C. integrifolia, both native's of
New Granada.

CASTING, in foundery, the running of
a metal into a mould prepared for that
purpose. See FOUNDEKY.

CASTING, a term used for the quitting
or tin-owing aside any thing from the
body of an animal, by an effort of nature.
Thus deer cast their horns, snakes their
skins, lobsters their shells, hawks their
feathers, annually. When birds cast their
feathers, it is called moulting. A horse
casts his hair in the spring, and sometimes
in the autumn ; also horses sometimes
cast their hoofs.

CASTING of drapery, among painters,
denotes the distribution of the folds ; and
the drapery is said to be well cast, when
the folds are distributed in such a manner,
as to appear rather the result of mere
chance than of art, study or labour. In
that style of painting which is called
<{the grand," the folds of the draperies

CAS

GAS

should be great, and as few as possible,
because their rich simplicity is more sus-
ceptible of great lights. But it is an er-
ror to design draperies that are too heavy
and cumbersome, for they ought to be
suitable to the figures, with a combination
of ease and grandeur. Order, contrast,
and variety of stuffs and folds, constitute
the elegance of draperies ; and diversity
of colours in those stuffs contributes ex-
tremely to the harmony of the whole in
historic compositions.

CASTLE, in the sea language, is a part
of the ship, of which there are two, the
fore-castle being the elevation at the
prow, or the uppermost deck, towards
the mizen, the place where the kitchens
are. Hind-castle is the elevation which
reigns on the stern over the last deck,
where the officers' cabins and places of
assembly are.

CASTOR, the beaver, in natural his-
tory, a genus of Mammalia, of the or-
der Glires. Generic character: upper
fore-teeth truncated, and hollowed in a
transverse angle ; lower transverse at
the top; four grinders in each jaw; tail
long, scaly, and depressed ; clavicles per-
fect. There are two species, of which
the most worthy of notice is C. fiber. The
colour of the beaver is generally of a
deep chesnut; sometimes it has been seen
entirely white ; less rarely completely
black ; it is about three feet long in the
body; its tail is about the length of one
foot, and by its peculiarity distinguishes
this animal from every other quadruped ;
it is of an oval form, and Hat, with a
slight convexity towards the base, desti-
tute of hair, and completely covered with
scaly divisions. The beaver was known
to the ancients for its possession of that
scbacious matter called castor, secreted
by two large glands near its genitals and
anus, and of which each animal has about
two ounces ; but they appear to have
been unacquainted with its habits and
economy ; with that mental contrivance
and practical dexterity, which, in its na-
tural stale, so strikingly distinguish it.
Beavers are found in the most northern
latitudes of Europe and Asia, but are
most abundant in North America. In the
months of June and July they assemble
in large companies, to the number of two
hundred, on the banks of some water, and
proceed to the formation of their esta-
blishment. If the water be subject to
risings and fallings, they erect a dam, to
preserve it at a constant level ; where
this level is naturally preserved, this la-
bour is superseded. The length of this

dam is occasionally eight feet. In the
preparation of it, they begin with felling-
some very high, but not extremely thick,
tree on the border of the river, which
can be made to foil into the water ; and in
a short time this is effected, by the united
operation of many, with their fore-teeth,
the branches being afterwards cleared by
the same process. A multitude of smaller
trees are found necessary to complete the
fabric, and many of these are dragged
from some distance by land, and formed
into stakes, the fixing of which is a work
of extreme difficulty and perseverance,
some of the beavers with their teeth rais-
ing their large ends against the cross-
beam, while others at the bottom dig
with their fore-feet the holes in which
the points are to be sunk. A series of
these stakes, in several rows, is establish-
ed from one bank of the river to the
other, in connection with the cross-tree,
and the intervals between them are filled
up by vast quantities of earth, brought
from a distance, and plashed with mate-
rials adapted to give it tenacity, and pre-
vent its being carried ofF. The bank is
formed at the bottom, of about the width
of twelve feet, diminishing as it approach-
es the surface of the water to two or
three; being thus judiciously constructed
to resist its weight and efforts by the in-
clined plane instead of perpendicular op-
position. These preparations of such im-
mense magnitude and toil being complet-
ed, they proceed to the construction of
their mansions, which are raised on piles
near the margin of the stream or lake,
and have one opening from the land, and
another by which they have instant ac-
cess to the water. These buildings are
usually of an orbicular form, in general
about the diameter often feet, and com-
prehending frequently several stories.
The foundation walls are nearly two feet'
in thickness, resting upon planks or
stakes, which constitute also their floors.
In the houses of one story only, the walls,
which in all cases are plastered with ex-
treme neatness, both externally and with-
in, after rising about two feet perpendi-
cularly", approach each other, so as at
length to constitute, in closing, a species
of dome. In the application of the mor-
tar to their habitations, the tails as well as
feet of the beavers are of essential ser-
vice. Stone, wood, and a sandy kind of
earth, are employed in their structures,
which by their compactness and strength
completely preclude injury from winds
and rain. The alder, poplar, and willow,
are the principal trees which they employ;

CASTOR.

and they always beg-in their operations
on the trunk, 'at nearly two feet above
the ground ; nor do they ever desist from
the process till its fall is completed. They
sit instead of standing at this labour, and
while reducing1 the tree to the ground
derive a pleasure at once from the success
of their toils, and from the gratification of
their palate and appetite by the bark,
which is a favourite species of food to
them, as well as the young and tender
parts of the wood itself.

For their support in winter ample stores
are laid up near each separate cabin, and
occasionally, to give variety and luxury
to their repasts during a long season, in
which their stores must have become dry
and nearly tasteless, they will make ex-
cursions into the neighbouring woods for
fresh supplies. Depredations by the te-
nants of one cabin on the magazines of
another are unknown, and the strictest
notions of property and honesty are uni-
versal. Some of their habitations will
contain six only, others twelve, and some
even twenty or thirty inhabitants ; and the
whole village or township contains in ge-
neral about 12 or 14 habitations. Strang-
ers are not permitted to intrude on the
vicinity ; but, amidst the different mem-
bers of the society itself, there appear to
prevail that attachment and that friend-
ship, which are the natural result of mutual
co-operation, and of active and successful
struggles against difficulty. The approach
of danger is announced by the violent
striking of their tails against the surface
of the water, which extends the alarm to a
great distance ; and, while some throw
themselves for security into the water,
others retire within the precincts of their
cabins, where they are safe from every
enemy but man.

The neatness as well as the security of
their dwellings is remarkable, the floors
being strewed over with box and fir, and
displaying the most admirable cleanness
and order. Their general position is that
of sitting, the upper part of the body,
with the head, being considerably raised,
while the lower touches, and is some-
what, indeed, immersed in the water,
This element is not only indispensable
to them in the same way as to other qua-
drupeds, but they carefully preserve ac-
cess to it even when the ice is of very
considerable depth, for the purpose of
regaling themselves by excursions to a
great extent under the frozen surface.
The most general method of taking them
is by attacking their cabins during these
r.amMes, and watching their approach to

VOL. in.

a hole dug in the ice at a small distance,
to which they are obliged, after a certain
time, to resort for respiration.

The flesh of the anterior part of their
bodies resembles that of land animals in
substance and flavour, while that of the
lower possesses the taste, and smell, and
lightness of fish.

The sexual union among these animals
is connected with considerable individual
choice, sentiment, and constancy. Every
couple pass together the autumn and win-
ter, with the most perfect comfort and
affection. About the close of winter the
females, after a gestation of four months,
produce, in general, each, two or three
young, and soon after this period they
are quitted by the males, who ramble
into the country to enjoy the return of
spring ; occasionally returning to their
cabins, but no longer dwelling in them.
When the females have reared their
young, which happens in the course of a
few weeks, to a state in which they can
follow their dams, these also quit their
winter residence and resort to the woods,
to enjoy the opening bloom and renovat-
ed supplies of nature. If their habitations
on the water should be impaired by
floods, or winds, or enemies, the beavers
assemble with great rapidity to repair
the damage. If no alarm of this nature
occurs, the summer is principally spent
by them in the woods, and on the ad-
vance of autumn they assemble in the
scene of their former labours and friend-
ships, and prepare with assiduity for the
confinement and rigours of approaching
winter.

When taken young, the beaver maybe
tamed without difficulty, but exhibits few
or no indications of superior intelligence.
Some beavers are averse to that asso-
ciation which so strikingly characterises
these animals in general, and satisfy them-
selves with digging holes in the banks of
rivers, instead of erecting elaborate habi-
tations. The fur of these is comparative-
ly of little value. See Mammalia, Plate
VIT. fig. 1.

C. huidobrius, or the Chilese beaver.
This is found principally in the deep lakes
and rivers of Chili. Its tail differs from
that of the former, in being lanceolated
and hairy. It produces no castor, and
possesses nothing of the art of architec-
ture. It is courageous, and even savage
in its disposition, and has the power of re-
maining under water for a very consider,
able time. Its fur is employed in the ma-
nufacture of hats, and of a species of cloth
as soft as the finest velvet,

CAS

CAT

C ASTOR-oz7, in pharmacy, is extracted
from the kernel of the fruit produced by
the Fficinus Americanus, or oil nut, which
grows in many parts of America, and is
much cultivated in Jamaica. A gallon of
nuts from this tree will produce about a
quart of oil. It is either prepared by
coction or cold drawn ; that is, extracted
from the bruised seeds. It is sent over
to us in barrels ; and it is reckoned the
best which has least colour.

CASTRAMETATION, is the art of
measuring or tracing out the form of a
camp on the ground ; yet it sometimes
has a more extentive signification, by in-
cluding all the views and designs of a ge-
neral ; the one requires only the know-
ledge of a mathematician, the other the
experience of an old soldier. The an-
cients were accustomed to fortity their
camps by throwing up entrenchments
round them. The Turks, and other Asia-
tic nations, fortify themselves, when in an
open country, with their waggons and
other carriages. The practice of the
Europeans is quite different ; for the sure-
ty of their camp consists in the facility
and convenience of drawing out their
troops at the head of their encampment :
for which reason, whatever particular
order of battle is regarded as the best
disposition for fighting, it follows, of
course, that we should encamp in such
a manner as to assemble and parade our
troops in that order and disposition as
soon as possible. It is therefore the or-
der of battle that should regulate the or-
der of encampment ; that is to say, the
post of each regiment in the line of bat-
tle should be at the head of its own en-
campment : from whence it follows, that
the extent of the line of battle from right
to left of the camp should be equal to the
front of the troops in line of battle, with
the same intervals in the camp as in the
line. By this means every battalion co-
vers its own tents, and they can all lodge
themselves, or turn out in case of neces-
sity at a minute's warning.

If the front of the camp is greater
than the line, the troops must leave large
intervals, or expose their flanks; if less, the
troops will not have room to form with
the proper intervals.

The front or principal line of the
camp is commonly directed to face the
enemy.

CASUALS, a term used by military
men, in their regimental returns of the
British army, signifying- men that are dead,
have been discharged, or have deserted.

CASUARINA, in botany, a genus of

the Monoecia Monandria class and order.
Natural order of Conifers. Essential
character : male calyx of the ament ;
corol scalelets two-parted ; female calyx
of the ament ; corol none ; style bifid ;
strobile. There are five species, of which
C. equisctifolia, horse-tail casuarina, is a
very large spreading lofty tree; the leaves,
or rather blanchlets hanging down in
bunches from twelve to eighteen inches
in length, like very longhair, or a horse's
tail, all joiuted from top to bottom like the
equisetums, or horse tails, is a very re-
markable character of this singular tree.
It is a native of the East Indies and the
South Sea Islands.

CAT. See FELIS.

CAT, a ship usually employed in the
coal trade ; built very strong, and made
to carry from four to six hundred tons. It
is distinguished by a narrow stern, pro-
jecting quarters, and by having no orna-
mental figure on the prows.

C \T-hook, a strong hook fitted to the
cat, to hook the ring of the anchor when
it is to be drawn up or catted.

CATc-o'iune tails, an instrument, by
which discipline is still maintained in the
British navy and army, though, to the
honour of other countries, it is said that
corporal punishment has been abolished.
This instrument is composed of nine
pieces of line or chord, about half a yard
long, fixed upon a piece of thick rope for
a handle, and having three knots on each
cord, with which the men who transgress
the orders of their superiors are pun-
ished.

CA-r's-patv, a light breeze of wind per-
ceived at a distance, in a calm, by the im-
pression made on the surface of the sea,
which it sweeps very lightly, and then de-
cays. The same term is given to a parti-
cular turn made in the bight of a rope, in
order to hook a tackle on it.

C \T-harpiugSy in a ship, small ropes
running in little blocks from one side of
the shrowds to the other, near the deck.
Their use is to force the shrowds and
make them taught, for the more security
and safety of the masts.

CAT-Aea</s, two strong beams of timber,
projected almost horizontally over the
ship's-bows, on each side of the bow-
sprit. The cat-head serves to suspend
the anchor clear of the bow, when it is
necessary to let it go : it is supported by
a sort of knee, which is generally orna-
mented by sculpture.

CATACAUSTIC curves, in the higher
geometry, that species of caustic curves
which are formed by reflection.

CAT

These curves are generated after the
following* manner. If there be an infinite
number of rays, as A B, A C, A D, &c.
(plate Miscellanies, fig1. 6.) proceeding
from the radiating- point A, and reflect-
ed at any given curb B D H, so that the
angles of incidence be still equal to
those of reflection ; then the curve B E
G, to which the reflected rays B I, C E,
D F, &c. are tangents continually, as in
the points I, E, F, is called the catacaus-
tic curve.

If the reflected I B be produced to K,
so that A B = B K, and the curve K L be
the evolute of the catacaustic B E G, be-
ginning at the point K ; then the portion
of the catacaustic BE = AC — ABx
C E — B I continually. Or if any two in-
cident rays, as A B, A C be taken, that
portion of the caustic that is evolved
while the ray A B approaches to a coin-
cidence with A C, is equal to the differ-
ence of those incident rays x the differ-
ence of the reflected rays. When the
given curve is a geometrical one, the
catacaustic will be so too, and always
rectifiable. The catacaustic of a circle is
a cycloid, formed by the revolution of
a circle along a circle. Thus, A B D,
fig. 7, being a semicircle exposed to
parallel rays ; then those rays which fair
ntur the axis C B will be reflected to F,
the middle point of B C ; and those which
fall at A, as they touch the curve only,
will not be reflected at all ; but any inter-
mediate ray H I will be reflected to a
point K, somewhere between A and F.
And since every different incident ray
will have a different focal point, there-
fore, those various focal points will form
a curve line A E F in one quadrant, and
F G D in the other, being the cycloid
above-mentioned. And this figure may
be beautifully exhibited experimentally
by exposing the inside of a smooth bowl,
or glass, to the sun beams, or strong can-
dle light ; for then this curve A E F G D
will appear plainly delineated on any
•white surface placed horizontally within
the same, or on the surface of milk con-
tained in the bowl. The caustic of the
common semi-cycloid, when the rays are
parallel to the axis, is also a common cy-
cloid, described by the revolution of a
circle upon the same base. The caustic
of the logarithmic spiral is the same curve,
only set in a different position.

CATACHRESIS, in rhetoric, a trope
which borrows the name of one thing to
express another. Thus Milton, describ-
ing Raphael's descent from the empyreal
heaven to paradise, say?,

" Down thither, prone in flight,

He speeds, and thro' the vast ethereal
sky

Sails between worlds and worlds."

CATACOMB, a grotto or subterrane-
ous place of burial for the dead.

The term is particularly used in Italy,
for a vast assemblage of subterraneous
sepulchres, three leagues from Rome, in
the Via Appia, supposed to be the sepul-
chres of the ancients. Others imagine
these catacombs to be the cells wherein
the primitive Christians hid themselves.
Each catacomb is three feet broad, and
eight or ten high, running in form of an
alley or gallery, and communicating with
one another.

Mr. Monro, in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, gives it as his opinion, that the
catacombs were the burial places of the
first RomanSj before the practice of burn-
ing the dead was introduced ; and that
they were dug in consequence of these
opinions, that shades hate the light, and
love to hover about the place where their
bodies were laid.

CAT ACOUSTIC S,an appellation given
to the doctrine of reflected sounds. See
ACOUSTICS.

CATALOGUE, a list or .enumera-
tion of the names of several books, men,
or other things, according to a certain
order.

CATALOGUE of the stars, is a list of the
fixed stars, disposed in their several con-
stellations with the longitudes and lati-
tudes of each.

The most renowned composers of
these catalogues are, 1. Ptolemy, who
added his own observations to those of
Hipparchus Rhodius, about the year of
Christ 880. 2. Ulugh Beigh made a cata-
logue of the fixed stars in 1437. S.Tycho
Brahe determined the places of 777 stars
for the year 1600. 4. William, Landgrave
of Hesse, with his mathematicians, deter-
mined the places of 400 fixed stars. 5.
In the year 1667, Dr. Halley, in the island
of St. Helena, observed 350, not visible in
ourhorison. And 6. J. Hevelius, adding
his own observations to those of the an-
cients, and of Dr. Halley, made a cata-
logue of 1888. But the last and greatest
is the Britannic catalogue, a performance
the most perfect of its kind, compiled
from the observations of the accurate
Mr. Flamstead, who, with all the talents
and apparatus requisite for such an un-
dertaking, devoted himself to that w ork
for a long series of years. It contains
2934 stars.

In 1782, M. Bode, member of the Royal

CAT

Academy of Sciences at Berlin, publish-
ed a very extensive catalogue of the fixed
stars, collected from the observations of
Flamstead, Bradley, Hevelius, Tobias
Mayer, De La Caille, Messier, La Mon-
nier, D'Arquier, and other astronomers ;
in which the places of the stars, amount-
ing- in number to 5058, are given for the
beginning of the year 1780. This cata-
logue, which is a very valuable work,
though there is reason to apprehend that
the same star is inserted more than once,
is accompanied by a celestial atlas, or set
of maps of the constellations, engraved
in a very delicate and beautiful manner.
In the catalogue already enumerated, the
stars are classed in constellations In the
following catalogues they succeed each
other, according to the order in which
they transit the meridian, without any
regard to the constellation to which they
belong; the name of the constellation
being given, with a description of the
stars' situation in it. The first catalogue
of the stars, as we conceive, that was
printed in this form, or in the order of
their right ascensions, is that of M. de la
Caille, given at the beginning of his
Ephemerides for the ten years between
1755 and 1765, and printed in 1755. It
contains the right ascensions and declina-
tions of 307 stars, adapted to the begin-
ning of the year 1750. In 1757 he pub-
lished his " Astronomix Fundamenta,"
in which is a catalogue of the right
ascensions and declinations of 398 stars,
adapted likewise to the beginning of
1750. In 1763, the year immediately
Succeeding that of his death, the " Coelum
Australe Stelliferum" of the same author
was published ; and this contains a cata-
logue of the places of 1942 stars, all situ-
ated to the southward of the Tropic of
Capricorn, and observed by the same in-
defatigable astronomer while he was at
the Cape of Good Hope in 1751 and
1752. The places of these are given for
the beginning of the year 1750. In the
same year, the Ephemerides for the 10
years between 1765 and 1775, were pub-
lished ; in the introduction to which, the
places of 515 zodiacal stars are given, all
deduced from his own observations. The
stars in this catalogue are rectified to
the "beginning of the year 1765. The
Nautical Almanac for 1773 contains a
catalogue of 380 stars, in right ascension,
declination, longitude, and latitude, de-
rived from the observations of the late
Rev. Dr. Bradley, and adjusted to the
beginning of the year 1760. It has been
since, viz. in 1798, republished, with cor-
Tections, by Dr, Hornsby, in the first

volume of Bradley's Observations. These
make but a small part of what might have
been deduced from the labours of that
great man, if his representatives had not
withheld the rest from the public. Mr.,
Francis Wollaston informs us, that Dr.
Bradley had the whole British catalogue
calculated to the year 1744, and that
traces may be observed in it of his having
examined almost every star in it. He adds,
from satisfactory information, that Dr.
Bradley observed the British catalogue
twice through ; first, with the old instru-
ments of the Royal Observatory, previous
to 1750, and afterwards with the new
ones. The 380 stars above mentioned
were carefully rectified for the year 1790
by Mr. G. Gilpin.

" At the end of the first volume of " As-
tronomical Observations, made at the
Royal Observatory at Greenwich," pub-
lished in 1776, Dr. Maskelyne, the pre-
sent Astronomer Royal, has given a cata-
logue of 34 principal stars, in right
ascension and north polar distance,
adapted to the beginning of the year
1770, and which, t>eing the result
of several years' repeated observations,
made with the utmost care and the best
instruments, may be presumed to be ex-
ceedingly accurate. In 1776, a work was
published at Berlin, entitled "Recueil
de Tebles Astronomiques," in which is
contained a very large catalogue of stars
from Hevelius, Flamstead, M. de la Caille,
and Dr. Bradley, with their latitudes and
longitudes for the beginning of 1800, with
a catalogue of the southern stars of M.
de la Caille, of double stars, of change-
able stars, and of nebulous stars : a work
very useful for the practical astronomer.
To these maybe added Dr. HerschePs
catalogue of double stars, printed in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1782 and
1783 ; M. Messier's nebuize and clusters
of stars, published in the " Connoissance
des Temps," for 1784 ; and Dr. Herschel's
catalogue of the same kind, given in the
"Philosophical Transactions" for 1786.
In 1789, Mr. Francis Wollaston publish-
ed in folio, a " Specimen of a general
Astronomical Catalogue, arranged in
Zones of North Polar Distance, and
adapted to January 1, 1792." In forming
this catalogue, Mr. Wollaston has not
made any use of those which precede
Flamstead, except, in a small part, that of
Hevelius : but all the stars in the British
catalogue of 1725 arc inserted, as well as
those which are in the three latter cata-
logues of M. de la Caille ; those of Dr.
Bradley, in the Nautical Almanac for
1773 ; of M. Mayer ; of Dr. Masketyne ;

CAT

the double stars of Dr. Herschel ; M.
Messier's nebulae ; and all those of Dr.
Herschel, excepting1 his second and third
classes ; that is, all those which are capa-
ble of being* discerned with any teles-
cope inferior to his own. This work
contains five distinct catalogues, viz. Dr.
Maskelyne's new catalogue of 36 princi-
pal fixed stars ; a general catalogue of- all
the stars in zones of north-polar distance ;
an index of the general catalogue ; a
catalogue of all the stars, in the order in
which they pass the meridian ; and a
catalogue of zodiacal stars, in longitude
and latitude.

CATANANCHE, in botany, a genus
of the Syngenesia Polvgamia JEqualis
class and order. Natural order of Com-
pound Flowers. Division, Semifloscu-
los<e. Cinarocephalae, Jussieu. Essential
character : receptacle chaffy ; calyx im-
bricate ; down awned from a five-bristled
calycle. There are three species, of
which C. caenilea puts forth many narrow
hairy leaves, which are jagged on their
edges like those of buckshorn plantain ;
but the leaves are broader, the jags
deeper and at greater distances ; these
lie flat on the ground, turning their points
upwards, which are very narrow. Be-
tween the leaves come out the flower
stalks, which are in number proportion-
able to the size of the plant ; for from an
old thriving root there is frequently
eight or ten, and young plants do not
send out more than two or three; each of
the peduncles are terminated with single
heads of flowers, having a dry, silvery,
scaly calyx, in which are included three
or four florets ; these are of a fine blue
colour, with a dark spot at bottom, and
in each the stamens, with their yellow
summits, standing a little above the petals,
make a pretty appearance. It is a native
of the South of Europe.

CATAPLASM, an external topical me-
dicine, of a soft consistence, and prepar-
ed of ingredients of different virtues, ac-
cording to the intention of the physician.
See PHARMACY.

CATARACT, in medicine and sur-
gery, a disorder of the humours in the
eye, by which the pupilla, that ought to
appear transparent and black, looks
opaque, grey, blue, brown, &c. by which
vision is variously impeded, or totally de-
stroyed.

CATARRH. See MEDICINE.

CATASTASIS, in poetry, the third
part of the ancient drama, being that
wherein the intrigue, or action, set
forth in the epitasis, is supported, and
carried on, and heightened, till it be

ripe for the unravelling in the catas-
trophe.

CATASTROPHE, in dramatic poetry,
the fourth and last part in the ancient dra-
ma, or that immediately succeeding the
catastasis ; or, the fifth act in modern tra-
gedy.

CATCH word, among printers, that
placed at the bottom of each page, be-
ing1 always the first word of the following
page.

CATECHU, in chemistry, a substance
obtained by decoction and inspissation
from the wood of the mimosa catechu, a
native of India, is a very powerful as-
tringent, and contains a large propor-
tion of tannin. It is almost wholly solu-
ble in water, and in alcohol, but when
acted upon by this, a portion of mucilage
remains undissolved : the component
parts are

Bombay catechu.
Tannin . . . 54.5
Extractive matter 34.0
Mucilage . . . 6.5
Residue ... 5.

100.0

Bengal catechu.

Tannin . . . 48.5

Extract . . . 36.5

Mucilage ... 8.0

Residue ... 7.

100.0

CATEGORY, in logic, a series or order
of all the predicates or attributes con-
tained under any genus.

The school philosophers distribute all
the objects of our thoughts and ideas into
certain genera or classes, not so much,
say they, to learn what they do not know,
as to communicate a distinct notion of what
they do know ; and these classes the
Greeks called categories, and the Latins
predicaments.

Aristotle made ten categories ; viz:sub-
stance, quantity, quality, relation, action,
passion, time, place, situation, and habit,
which are usually expressed by the fol-
lowing technical distich :

Arbor, sex, servos, ardore, refrigerat,
ustos,

Rim, eras, stabo, nee tunicatus era.

C ATENARIA, in the higher geometry,
the name of a curve line formed by a rope
hanging freely from two points of sus-

CAT

pension, whether the points be horizon-
tal or not. The nature of this curve was
Sought after in Galileo's time, but not
discovered till the year 1690, when Mr.
Bernoulli published it as a problem. Dr.
Gregory, in 1697, published a method of
investigation of the properties formerly
discovered by Mr. Bernoulli and Mr.
Leibnitz, together with some new pro-
perties of this curve. From him we
take the following method of finding the
general property of the catenaria.

1. Suppose a line heavy and flexible,
the two extremes of which F and D,
Plate II. Miscellanies, fig. 8, are firmly
fixed in those points; by its weight it is
bent into a certain curve FAD, which
is called the catenaria.

2. Let B D and b c be parallel to the
horizon, A B perpendicular to B D, and
D c parallel to A B, and the points B b
infinitely near to each other. From the
laws of mechanics, any three powers in
equilibrio are to one another as the lines
parallel to the lines of their direction,
(or inclined in any given angle) and ter-
minated by their mutual concourses ;
hence if D d express the absolute gravity
of the particle D d, (as it will if we allow
the chain to be every way uniform) then
D c will express that part of the gravity
that acts perpendicularly upon D d ; and
by the means of which this particle en-
deavours to reduce itself to a vertical
position ; so that if this linepla c? c be
constant, the perpendicular action of gra-
vity upon the parts of the chain will be
constant too, and may therefore be ex-
pressed by any given right line. Further,
the lineola D c will express the force
which acts against that conatus of the
particle D d, by which it endeavours to
restore itself in a position perpendicular
to the horizon, and hinders it from doing
so. This force proceeds from the pon-
derous line D A drawing according to
the direction D d ; and is, cxteris paribu^
proportional to the line D A which is- the
cause of it. Supposing the curve FAD,
therefore, as before, whose vertex is A,
axis A B, ordinate B D, fluxion of the ax-
is D C=B 6, fluxion of the ordinate d c,
the relation of these two fluxions is thus;
viz. d c : D d :: a : D A curve, which is
the fundamental property of the curve,
and may be thus expressed (putting
A B ==a: and BD=*?/ and AD=c

,,=_,

CATERPILLAR, in natural history :
the larvae of butterflies are universally
known by the name of caterpillars^ and

are extremely various in their forms an4
colours, some being- smooth, others be-
set with either simple or ramified spines,
and some are observed to protrude from
their front, when disturbed, a pair of short
tentacula or feelers, somewhat analagous
to those of a snail. A caterpillar, when
grown to its full size, retires to some con-
venient spot, and securing itself proper-
ly by a small quantity of silken filaments,
either suspends itself by the tail, hang-
ing with its head downwards, or else in
an upright position, with the body fasten-
ed round the middle by a number of fila-
ments. It then casts oft'its caterpillar-skin,
and commences crysalis, in which state
it continues till the butterfly is ready for
birth, which, liberating itself from the
skin of the chrysalis, remains till its
wings, which are first short, weak, and
covered with moisture, are fully extend-
ed ; this happens in about a quarter of 'an
hour, when the animal suddenly quits the
state of inactivity to which it had been so
long confined, and becomes at pleasure
an inhabitant of the air.

CATESB^EA, in botany, so called in
honour of Mark Catesby, a genus of the
Tetrandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Luridae. Rubiaceje, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : corolla mono-
petalous, funnel-form, extremely long,
superior ; stamens within the mouth ;
berry polyspermous. There are but two
species, of which C. spinosa, lily -thorn,
rises with a branching stem to the height
of twelve feet, covered with a pale russet
bark ; the branches come out alternately
from the bottom to the top, with small
leaves resembling those of the box-tree, in
clusters all round the branches at certain
distances ; the flowers come out single
from the sides of the branches, hanging
downward, and are of a dull yellow co-
lour ; the berry is the size of a middling
plum, hollow within, with small angular
seeds. This shrub was discovered by Mr.
Catesby near Nassau town, in Providence,
one of the Bahama Islands. C. parviflo-
ra is a native of Jamaica.

CATHARTICS, in medicine, are the
same with what are commonly called pur-
gatives. See MEDICINE.

CATHEDRAL, a church wherein is a
bishop's see or seat.

After the establishment of Christianity,
the emperors, and other great men, gave
large demesnes and other possessions for
the maintenance of the clergy ; on these
were built the first places of worship,
which were called cathedra, cathedrals,
sees, or seats, from the bishop and his
chief clergy's residence thereon.

CAT

CAV

A cathedral was originally different
from what it is now, the Christians, till
the time of Constantino, having no liberty
to build any temple. By their churches
they only "meant their assemblies ; and
by their' cathedrals, nothing- more than
consistories.

CATHETER, in surgery, a fistulous
instrument, usually made of silver, or silk
coated with caoutchouc, to be intro-
duced into the bladder, to discharge
the urine when suppressed. See SUR-
GERY.

CATHETUS, in geometry, aline or ra-
dius falling perpendicularly on another
line or surface : thus the "catheti of a
right angled triangle are the two sides
that include the right angle.

CATOPTRICS, that part of optics that
treats of reflex vision, and explains the
laws and properties of reflection, chiefly
founded upon this truth, that the angle of
reflection is always equal to the angle of
incidence ; and from thence deducing the
magnitudes, shapes, and situations, of the
appearances of objects seen by the reflec-
tion of polished surfaces, and particularly
plane, spherical, conical, and cylindrical
ones. See OPTICS.

CATTLE. Under this term are com-
prehended horses and oxen of both sexes
and of all ages ; these we term black cat-
tle : while sheep, goats, &c. come under
the designation of small cattle. The
whole tribe are granivorous, and may be
very easily maintained without the aid of
the plough, though it is certain that the
produce of tilled land will pay better,
when appropriated to the support of cat-
tle, than common pastures, or even arti-
ficial grasses. The latter, such as clover,
saintfoin, burnet, &c. are superior to
common meadow hay, for the purposes
of winter fodder ; making the animals
appear better in their coats, or hair, and
causing them to fatten, and to endure fa-
tigue, far beyond what they could un-
dergo on common field grass, or its
hay. We have thousands of cattle -mar-
kets, where beasts of all descriptions
may be purchased, in every stage of con-
dition, and in all their varieties. The
great improvements made of late years
in farming, added to our great increase
of population, have rendered the busi-
ness of feeding cattle of great impor-
tance.

CATTLE, law relating to. By a statute
of Edward VI. no person shall buy any
ox, 8tc. and sell the same again alive in
the same market, or fair, on pain of for-
feiting' double the value, thereof, half to

the King, and half to him that shall sue.
This is the act against forestalling, re-
grating, &c.

C ATURUS, in botany, a genus of the
Dioecia Triandria class and order. Na-
tural order of Tricoccse. Euphorbias,
Jussieu. There are two species : C. spi-
ciflorus is a tree about twenty feet in
height, with many branches diffused all
round ; the wood is white and close, with
a thick, dusky, unctuous, inodorous bark,
and a yellow pith within ; the fruit is a
round, yellowish-green, insipid berry, in-
closing one round green seed. Native of
the East Indies. C. scandens is a native
of the woods of Cochin China.

CAVA, or VENA CAVA, in anatomy,
a vein arising with a large sinus from
the right auricle of the heart. See ASA-
TOM r.

CAVALIER, in fortification, an eleva-
tion of earth, of different shapes, situated
ordinarily in the gorge of a bastion, bor-
dered with a parapet, and cut into more
or less embrasures, according1 to the ca-
pacity of the cavalier.

CAVALRY, a body of soldiers that
charge on horseback, and may properly
be called the right arm of the army : they
are of great service in disturbing the
enemy by their frequent excursions, in
intercepting convoys, and destroying the
country. The cavalry is divided into
squadrons, and encamp on the wings of
the army.

CAUC ALIS, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Digynia class and order. Na-
tural order of Umbellatae. Essential cha-
racter : corolla radiated, in the disc ;
male, petals inflex-emarginate ; fruit his-
pid ; with bristles ; involucres entire.
There are nine species. These plants
are all annual, or at most biennial, and
are seldom cultivated, except in botanic
gardens. They will rise readily from
seeds, where they are permitted to scat-
ter, and will grow in any soil and situa-
tion.

CAVEAR, C A VEER, or CAVIART, the
spawn or hard roes of sturgeon, made
into small cakes, an inch thick, and of
an hand's breadth, salted and dried in
the sun.

The French and Italians get the cavear
from Archangel, but they seldom get it
at the first hand, for they commonly buy
it of the English and Dutch.

CAVEAT, in law, a kind of process in
the spiritual courts, to stop the proving of
a will, the granting letters of administra-
tion, &c. to the prejudice of another. It
is also used to stop the, institution of a

CAV

clerk to a benefice. A caveat stands in
force for three months.

The entering" a caveat being- at the in-
stance of the party, is for the benefit
of the ordinary, that he may do no wrong1;
it is a cautionary act for his better in-
formation, to which the temporal courts
have no regard ; therefore, if, after a ca-
veat entered, the ordinary should grant
administration, or probate of a will, it is
not void by our law, though it is by the
canon law ; but our law takes notice of a
caveat.

CAYERNOSE, among anatomists, an
appellation given to several parts of the
body on account of their spongy struc-
ture : thus the cavernosa corpora are two
, spongy bodies, made up of a number of
small caverns or cells.

CAVETTO, in architecture, the re-
verse of a quarter round, being a concave
moulding frequently used in the entabla-
ture.

CAVIA, the cavy, in natural history, a
genus of Mammalia, of the order Glires.
Generic character : two wedge-shaped
front teeth ; eight grinders ; from four to
five toes on the fore-feet, from three to
five on the hind-feet ; tail very short, or
none ; no clavicles. There are seven spe-
cies, of which those that follow are most
deserving attention.

C. cobaya, or the guinea pig. This
animal is a native of South America, and
found particularly in Brazil. It is tamed
with great facility, and is inoffensive, ti-
morous, and particularly cleanly ; it does
not, however, appear susceptible of strong
attachments to its benefactors, nor is it
remarkable for docility. It is one of the
most prolific of animals, and Buffon cal-
culates that, in twelve months only, one
thousand might be produced from a sin-
gle pair, as the female has been known
to bring forth young when two months
eld only ; and the time of gestation is
only three weeks ; and she will produce
at least every two months. They are six
or seven months before they arrive at
their maturity of growth, but within the
short period of twelve hours from their
birth are nearly as alert and active as
those fully grown, and therefore require
parental assiduity only for a little time.
Vegetables form their food, and on a
great variety of these they will flourish
and fatten : very succulent food of this
description, however, is injurious, and
with sow-thistles and cabbage, should be
employed for them nourishment of more
consistency, such as grain and bread.
They drink but little, appear, after eating

to ruminate, and are extremely apt to
be aflccted by cold. They are in some
places used as articles of food, and even
considered as delicacies. They are un-
commonly cleanly in their habitations,
and are often to be seen smoothing and
cleansing their fur with particular atten-
tion and perseverance. In contests they
not only bite, but kick. It is a curious
circumstance, if it maybe depended upon
as true, and it is stated by authentic re-
porters, that the male and female seldom
sleep at the same time, but exercise over
each other alternate vigilance. See Mam-
malia, Plate VII. fig. 2.

C. paca, or the spotted cavy, of Pen-
nant, is clumsily formed ; a native, like
the former, of South America ; is highly
esteemed by the inhabitants of this quar-
ter of the world for its food ; is particu-
larly fond of fruits and of sugar ; and
continuing in its hole during the day, de-
votes the night to activity and refresh-
ment. See Mammalia, Plate VII. fig. 3.

C. capybara, or the river cavy, inhabits
particularly the eastern parts of South
America ; and when full grown weighs
about a hundred pounds ; it lives not only
upon vegetables, but also upon fish,
which, as it swims and dives extremely
well, it procures with facility, but which
it brings to land before it devours ; it is
of a mild disposition, and easily familiar-
ized by man ; its pursuit of prey is ge-
nerally engaged in by night ; it frequents^
principally, marshes and the banks of ri-
vers. These animals are reported to as-
sociate only in pairs. The female pro-
duces only one young at a time. Their
flesh is praised by some as exquisite, but
others represent it as rank and fishy.

C. aguti, the long-nosed cavy. These
animals move like hares, and grunt like
pigs ; their food consists of various fruits,
and of nuts, which they will lude, and
abstain from touching for many months ;
they breed with the rapidity of rabbits,
no season checking their prolific tenden-
cies ; their flesh is very agreeable to the
taste, and, even when they are old, ac-
quires little or no toughness. They are
caught by the Indians in Guinea, and
other warm parts of South America,
where alone they are to be met with in
great numbers, sometimes being hunted
down by their dogs, and frequently being
taken in traps, to \vhich they are allured
by the accurate imitation of their pecu-
liar sounds. They are nearly of the
size of a hare ; when pursued, they re-
treat to burrows or holes of trees, which,
indeed, constitute their irregular and

CAU

CAY

frequently changed abodes, and in which
they, are almost uniformly found alone ;
or the female with its young ones They
hold their food in the same manner as
the squirrel ; they make their excur-
sions for food during the day, and may
be easily domesticated, though not so
completely as to exclude altogether their
natural \nlclness. See Mammalia, Plate
VII. fig. 4.

C AUKING, or CAULKING of a ship, is
driving oakum, or the like, into all the
seams of the plank of a ship, to prevent
leaking and keep out the water.

CAULKING irons, are iron chissels for
that purpose. Some of these irons are
broad, some round, and others grooved.
After the seams are stopped with oakum,
it is done over with a mixture of tallow,
pitch, and tar, as low as the ship draws
water.

CAUL, in anatomy, a fmembranaceous
part of the abdomen, covering the great-
est part of the intestines.

CAULIFLOWERS, in gardening, a
much esteemed species of brassica, or cab-
bage.

CAUSE, causa, that from whence any
thing proceeds, or by virtue of which any
thing is done : it stands opposed to effect.
We get the ideas of cause and effect, says
Mr. Locke, from our observation of the
vicissitude of things, while we perceive
some qualities or substances begin to ex-
ist, and that they receive their existence
from the due application and operation
of other beings. That which produces,
is the cause, and that which is produced,
the effect : thus, fludity in wax is the
effect of a certain degree of heat, which
we observe to be constantly produced by
the application of such heat.

CAUSE, first, that which acts of itself,
and of its own proper power or virtue :
God is the only first cause in this sense.

CAUSES, second, are those which de-
rive the power and faculty of action from
a first cause ; these are improperly called
causes, as they do not, strictly speaking,
act at all, but are acted on : of this kind
are all those that we term natural causes.

CAUSES, final, are the motives indue-
ing an agent to act ; or the design and
purpose for which the thing was done.

Lord Bacon says, that the final cause is
so far from being serviceable, that it cor-
rupts the sciences, unless it be restrain-
ed to human actions : however, continues
he, final causes are not false, nor unwor-
thy of inquiry in metaphysics : but their
excursions into the limits of physical
causes hath made a great devastation in

VOL. III.

that province ; otherwise, when contain-
ed within their own bounds, they are
not repugnant to physical causes.

CAUSEWAY, or CAUSET, a massive
construction of stones, stakes, and fas-
cines ; or an elevation of earth, well beat-
en ; serving either as a road in wet mar-
shy places, or as a mole to retain the
waters of a pond, or prevent a river from
overflowing the lower grounds.

CAUSTIC, ; a substance is said to

CAUSTICITY, 5 be caustic, when it
produces the same effect on the tongue
as that of actual fire, that is, an imme-
diate sensation of burning, followed with
a slight disorganization of the surface ac-
tually in contact. Thus alkalies are call-
ed caustic when deprived of carbonic
acid, because, when concentrated, they
then burn and blister the tongue almost
instantly. Caustic substances are also
generally corrosive, or such as act upon
organized matter, and decompose it with
rapidity. The term caustic prefixed to
the alkalies and earths, to distinguish the
pure or decarbonated state, is now almost
always omitted, as unnecessary, by the
use of the term carbonate ; thus, to the
terms caustic potash, anri mild potash, are
substituted those of potash, and carbonate
of potash, respectively. We also say
lime, and the carbonate of lime. There
is still some confusion with regard to the
term soda among others ; soda meaning
in chemical language pure or caustic so-
da, but in commerce, and in common use,
the mild or carbonate of soda.

CAUSTIC, lunar, the old name for ni-
trate of silver, melted and cast into cy-
lindrical pieces about the size of small
black-lead pencils, for the use of sur-
geons : and the solution of lunar caustic
is the proportion of from 8 to 12 grains
in an ounce of water, and has been found
an excellent remedy in cases of ring-
worm, as it is called, that is, when the
hair falls offin patches from the head

CAUSTIC curve, in the higher geome-
try, a curve formed by the concourse or
coincidence of the rays of light, reflected
or refracted from some other curve. See
CATACACSTIC.

CAYE\NE/>e/>/>er. This is the levigat-
ed or ground pod of the plant common-
ly known to us by the name of capsi-
cum. There are many va)*ieties; but
the principal are : — l.Tlie berberry cap-
sicum, much resembling that fruit in size
and colour, though infinite!} more glow-
ing. It is perhaps the most p in0 ••;/ of
all the vegetable s«n:p'?- with ^ hich
we are acquainted. 2. The long-pod,

CEO

CED

which is extremely common, and gene-
rally grows as large as a man's middle
finger. 3. The cockspur, which takes
that name from its shape, and is highly
pungent. 4. The caffree, which is round
and wrinkled, and ordinarily about the
size of a small medlar. All these may
be raised from the seed on hot-beds,
and planted out in June. They are bien-
nials in their native climate ; viz. in Cay-
enne, whence the pepper derives its
name, and in every part of the torrid
zone ; but we cannot keep them through
the winter. Cayenne is esteemed a stimu-
lant, and commonly has a place among
the sauces, &c. intended for the table.

CAYS, a term used by sailors to denote
the little islands and rocks that are almost
every where dispersed among the West
India islands.

CAZEMATE, or CASEMATE, in fortifi-
cation, a certain retired platform in the
flank of a bastion, for the defence of
the moat and face of the opposite bas-
tion.

CEANOTHUS, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogy nia class and order.
Natural order of Dumosae. Rhamni, Jus-
sieu. Essential character: petals five,
sacular, vaulted ; berry dry, three-celled,
three-seeded. There are six species, of
which C. Americanus, American ceano-
thus, or New-Jersey tea, seldom rises
more than three or four feet high in Eng-
land, sending out branches on every side
from the ground upward. These branches
are ornamented with oval pointed leaves,
having three longitudinal veins running
from the foot-stalk to the point, and di-
verging in the broad part of the leaves
from each other; at the extremity of
eachshoet the flowers are produced in
close thick spikes, and are composed
of five small petals of a clear white.
These appear in July, making a pretty
appearance during their continuance ; for
as every shoot is terminated by one of
these spikes, the whole shrub is covered
over with flowers, the branches growing
very close to each other; and when the
autumn proves mild, these shrubs often
flower again in October.

CECROPIA, in botany, a genus of the
Dioecia Diandria class and order. Natu-
ral order of Scabridae. Urticae, Jussieu.
Essential character, male ; spathe cadu-
cous ; ament imbricate, with turbinate
scales ; compressed-quadrangular ; corol-
la none ; female as in the male ; germus
imbricate : style one ; stigma lacerated ;
berry one-seeded. There is but one
species, vis. C. peltata, trumpet-tree, or

snake-wood ; this tree commonly rises to
a considerable height, being seldom •un-
der forty feet in the most perfect state.
The trunk and branches arc hollow every
where, and stopped from space to space
with membranous septas, answering to so
many light annular marks in the surface.
The wood of this tree, when dry, is very
apt to take fire by attrition : the native
Indians always kindle their fires in the
woods by rubbing a piece of it against
some harder wood- The bark is strong
and fibrous, and is frequently used for
cordage. It is a native of South Ameri-
ca, Jamaica, and other West India
Islands.

CEDAR, comprehended by Linnaeus
among the junipers. See JUNIPER. Ce-
dar-wood, which is of a fragrant smell
and fine grain, is^almost incorruptible,
by reason of its bitterness, which renders
it distasteful to worms. Historians tell
us, that some of this timber was found
in the temple of Apollo at Utica, 2000
years old. The cedars of Lebanon are
famous as having been used by Solomon
in building the temple at Jerusalem.

CEDRELA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Miscellaneae. Meliae, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : calyx wither-
ing ; corolla five-petalled, funnel-form,
fastened by the base to the receptacle to
one-third of its length ; capsule woody,
five-celled, five-valved; seeds imbricate
downwards, with a membranaceous wing.
There is but one species ; viz. C. odorata,
Barbadoes bastard cedar ; rises with a
straight stem to the height of 70 or 80
feet : while young the bark is smooth,
and of an ash colour ; but as it advances,
the bark becomes rough, and of a darker
colour. Toward the top it shoots out
many side branches, garnished with
winged leaves, composed of sixteen pair
of leaflets, which are broad at their base,
and are near two inches long, of a pale co-
lour ; these emit a rank odour in the sum-
mer season, so as to be very offensive.
The fruit is oval, about the size of a par*
tridge's egg, smooth, of a dark'colour, and
opens in five parts, having a five-cornered
column standing in the middle, between
the angles of which the winged seeds are
closely placed, lapping over each other
like the scales offish. This tree is com-
monly known under the name of cedar in
the British West India islands.

CEDROTA, in botany, a genus of the
Octandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character : calyx six-parted ;
corolla none ; germ superior, surrounded

CEL

by a gland ; style short. There is but
one species ; vis. C. Guianensis ; this is
a lofty tree, forty feet in height, and two
in diameter, with a thick, unequal, wrink-
led bark full of clefts, and is a heavy aro-
matic wood, which becomes light when
dry. It grows in the great forest of Guia-
na, flowering in May.

CELARENT, in logic, a mode of syl-
logysm, wherein the major and conclusion
are universal negative propositions, and
the minor an universal affirmative. As

CE No man that is a hypocrite can be
saved :

LA Every man, who with his lips only
cries Lord, Lord, is a hypocrite :

RENT Therefore, no man, who with his
lips only cries Lord, Lord, can be
saved.

CELASTRUS, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Dumosae. Rham-
ni, Jussieu. Essential character : corolla
five-petalled, spreading ; capsule triangu-
lar, trilocular ; seeds calyptrated. There
are twenty-two species. This genus con-
sists of shrubs or small trees, with alter-
nate leaves, and the flowers many toge-
ther, on axillary subdichotomous pedun-
cles. They are mostly natives of Ame-
rica and the Cape of Good Hope.

CELERITY, the svviftnes of any body
in motion. See MECHANICS.

CELESTINE, in mineralogy, a species
of the Strontian genus; it is divided by
Werner into two sub-species ; viz. the
fibrous and the foliated: the colour of the
former is intermediate between indigo
blue and bluish grey, and sometimes
passes into a milk white. It loses its co-
lour in keeping. It is found massive and
in plates, also crystallized : the fragments
are splintery. It shews a tendency to
prismatic distinct concretions, which ap-
pear to be parallel and conformable with
the fibrous fracture. Specific gravity is
3.83. Its geognostic situation is very im-
perfectly known ; it is imagined to occur
in marl. It is found in France, and at
Frankstown in Pennsylvania. The foliated
celestine is milk white, which falls into
blue : it occurs massive, and is crystalliz-
ed in six-sided tables that intersect one
another. It is found in Sicily, and in Eng-
land, near Bristol : specific gravity 3.6,
nearly, and the constituent parts are, ac-
cording to Vauquelin,

Sulphate of strontian . . 91.42

Carbonate of lime . . . 8.33

Oxide of iron .... . 0.25

• 100,00

CELLEPORA, in natural history, a ge-
nus of the vermes zoophyta. Animal an
hydra or polype : corol somewhat mem-
branaceous, composed of round cells.
There are eight species, of which we
shall notice C. ramulosa, which is found in
the Northern Ocean, very brittle, and
much branched, and appearing as if com-
posed of grains of sand. C. spongites
has rows of tubular top-shaped cells, in
single layers, the openings of which are
margined. This species inhabits the Me-
diterranean and North seas : white, grey,
or red, and marked on the under side of
the cells with lines between each row ;
they are from two to five inches in dia*
meter.

CELLULAR substance, in anatomy, or
CELLULAR membrane, is the medium
which connects and supports all the va-
rious parts and structures of the body.
It is composed of an assemblage of fi-
bres, and laminae of animal matter, con-
nected to each other, so as to form innu-
merable cells or small cavities, from
which its name of cellular is derived.
This substance pervades every part of the
animal structure. By joining together
the minute fibrils of muscle, tendons or
nerve, it forms obvious and visible fibres ;
it collects these fibres into larger fascicu-
li ; and by joining such fasciculi to each
other, constitutes an entire muscle or
nerve. It thus forms an investment com-
mon to the whole muscle, and bestows
on each bundle of fibres, nay, on each fi-
bre, down to the most minute threads,
peculiar sheaths, delicate and tender in
proportion to the subtilty of the fibre. It
joins together the individual muscles, and
is collected in their intervals. It surrounds
each vessel and nerve in the body ; often
connecting these parts to each other by a
firm kind of capsule; and in a looser form
joining them to the neighbouring mus-
cles, &c. When condensed into a firm
and compact structure, it constitutes the
various membranes of the body ; which,
by long maceration in water, may be re-
solved into a cellular texture. In the
bones, it forms the basis and ground-
work of their fabric ; a receptacle, in the
interstices of which the earth of bone is
deposited. The only parts of the bodj
in which the cellular texture seems to be
wanting are, the proper substance of the
brain, the crystalline lens, enamel of the
teeth, and the insensible integuments of
the body ; viz. the epidermis, nails, and
hair. As the cellular substance is entirely
soluble in boiling water, it is ascribed
by chemists to the peculiar modification

CEL

CEM

oi animal matter, termed gelatine. Its
watery solution assumes, when cold, the
appearance of jelly, and, after a particular
mode of preparation, constitutes glue.

From the universal eKtent of this cel-
lular texture, two conclusions may be
drawn. 1. It forms the basis of the
whole animal fabric in such a way, that,
if we conceive every part removed, ex-
cept this, the form of the whole would
still be expressed in cellular substance.
2. It forms a connection and passage be-
tween all parts of the body, however re-
mote in situation, or dissimilar in struc-
ture. For the cells of this substance
every where communicate, as we may
collect from facts of the most common
and familiar occurrence. The air in em-
physema spreads rapidly from the chest
to .the most remote parts of the body ; it
has been known in such a case to gain ad-
mission into the eye-ball.

CELOSIA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Miscellanex. Amaranthi,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx three-
leaved ; leaflets similar to those of the
five-pe'alled corolla ; stamina conjoined
at the base to the plated nectary ; cap-
sule gaping horizontally. There are four-
teen Species. Celosias, or cock's combs,
are all herbaceous plants, and annual.
The flowers are glomerate in spikes or
panicles, some of which are fluted and
shaped somewhat like the comb of a cock.
Natives of the East Indies, China, Cochin
China, and Japan.

CELSIA, in botany, a genus of the Di-
dynamia Angiospermia class and order.
Natural order of Lurid je. Solaneae, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : calyx five-
parted ; corolla rotated ; filament beard-
ed ; caspule two-celled. There are four
species. Natives of the Levant, Crete,
the East Indies, and Peru.

CELTIS, in botany, English lote, or
nettle-tree, a genus of the Polygamia Mo-
noecia class and order. Natural order of
Scabridse. Amentacex, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character : Herm. calyx five-parted ;
corolla none ; stamina five ; styles two ;
drupe one-seeded : male, calyx six-part-
ed ; corolla none ; stamina six. There
are seven species, of which C. australis,
European nettle-tree, or lote tri e, with a
black fruit, is about fifty feet in height,
with slender branches, which have a
smooth dark coloured bark with grey
spots. The fruit is the size of a pea ; it
grows naturally in the south of France,
where it is one of the largest trees. The
wood of this tree is exceedingly hard, and

when it arrives to any size, its hardi
toughness, and flexibility, entitle it to
very important services. Its fine regular
spreading head, of a cheerful green co-
lour, renders this tree very proper for
clumps in parks, groves, single trees, or
avenues.

CEMENT copper. The copper procur-
ed from the sulphate by precipitation
with iron is so called.

CEMENTATION, in the arts, a gene-
ral method of forming steel from iron, by
means of the application of charcoal. In
a proper furnace, layers of bars of malle-
able iron, and layers of charcoal, are
placed one upon another, the air exclud-
ed, the fire is raised to a great height,
and kept up for eight or ten days. If
after this the conversion of the iron into
steel be complete, the fire is extinguished,
and the whole is left to cool for six or
eight days longer. Iron prepared in this
manner is named blistered steel, from the
blisters which appear on its surface,
Copper is converted into brass by cemen-
tation with a powder of calamine and
charcoal. The powder thus used is call-
ed cement powder.

CEMENTS and iutes. Under this ar-
ticle may be mentioned the receipts for
preparing some of the most useful sub-
stances of this kind that are required in
common chemical operations. The uses
of lutes and cements are either to close
the joinings of chemical vessels to pre-
vent the escape of vapours and gases dur-
ing the processes of distillation, sublima-
tion and the like, or to protect vessels
from the action of the fire, which might
crack, or fuse, or calcine them ; or
sometimes to repair flaws and cracks, and
for a variety of other smaller purposes.

From the vast variety of receipts for
lutes and cements of different kinds, the
following may be selected, which will an-
swer most of the purposes of the expe-
rimental chemist. To prevent the es-
cape of the vapours of water, spirit, and
liquors not corrosive, the simple applica-
tion of slips of moistened bladder will an-
swer very well for glass, and paper with
good paste for metal. Bladder, to be ve-
ry adhesive, should be soaked some time
in water moderately warm, till it feels
clammy ; it then sticks very well : if
smeared with white of egg, instead of wa-
ter, it adheres still closer. Another ve-
ry convenient lute is linseed meal, mois-
tened with water to a proper consistence,
well beaten, and applied pretty thick
over the joinings of the vessels. This
immediately renders them tight, and the

CEM

CEN

iiite in some hours dries to a hard mass.
Almond paste will answer the same pur-
pose. The use of the above lute is so ex-
tensive, that no other is required in clos-
ing glass vessels in preparing all com-
mon distilled liquors ; and it will even
keep in ammonia, and acid gases, for a
longer time than is required for most ex-
perimental purposes. It begins to scorch
and spoil at a heat much above boiling,
and therefore will not do as a fire-lute.
It is still firmer, and dries sooner, when
made up with milk, or lime-water, or
weak glae. A number of very cohesive
cements, impervious to water and most
liquids and vapours, and extremely hard
when once solidified, are made by the
union of quick-lime with many of the ve-
getable or animal mucilaginous liquors.
The variety of these is endless. We may
first mention the following, as it has been
extensively employed by chemists for
centuries. Take some whites of eggs
with as much water, beat them well to-
gether, and sprinkle in sufficient slaked
lime to make up the whole to the con-
sistence of thin paste. The lime should
be slaked by being once dipped in water,
and then suffered to fall into powder,
which it will do speedily, with great emis-
sion of heat, if well burnt. This cement
should be spread on slips of cloth, and
applied immediately, as it hardens or sets
very speedily. While hardening it may
be of use to sprinkle over it some of the
lime in fine powder. This cement is of-
ten more simply and as conveniently ma-
naged, by smearing slips of linen on both
sides with white of egg, and when appli-
ed to the joining of the vessels, shak-
ing some powdered lime over it ; it then
dries very speedily. Another lute of the
same kind, and equally good, is made by
using a strong solution of glue to the lime,
instead of the white of egg : it sets equal-
ly soon, and becomes very hard. A mix-
ture of liquid glue, white of egg, and
lime, makes the lutcT one, which is so firm,
that broken vessels united with it are al-
most as strong as when sound. None of
these lutes, however, will enable these
vessels to hold liquids for any great
length of time. Milk or starch, with
lime, make a good but less firm lute. A
very firm and singular lute of this kind is
made by rubbing down some of the poor-
est skimmed-milk cheese with water, to
the consistence of thick soup, and then
adding lime, and applying as above : it
answers extremely well. Lime and blood,
with a small quantity of brick-dust, or
broken pottery, stirred in, is used in
some places as a very good water-ce-

ment for cellars and places liable to
damp.

All the above-mentioned cements, with
lime, become very hard by drying, inso-
much that they cannot be separated from
glass vessels without the help of a sharp
knife and some violence ; and hence deli-
cate vessels and long thin tubes, cement-
ed with it, are apt to break when the ap-
paratus is taken down, and sometimes
even by the mere force of contraction in
setting. It is a great advantage, how-
ever, that they may be applied imme-
diately to any accidental crack or failure
of the lute already on, notwithstanding a
stream of vapour is bursting through ;
and in large distillations it is of advantage
always to have some of the materials at
hand.

CENCHRUS, in botany, a genus of the
Polygamia Monoecia class and order.
Natural order of Grasses. Essential cha-
racter: invol. laciniate, echinate, two
flowered ; calyx glume two flowered, one
male, the other hermaphrodite; Herm,
corolla glume awnless ; stamina three ;
seed one : male, corolla glume awnless ;
stamina three. There are eleven species,
all natives of both Indies.

CENSOR of books, is a body of doc-
tors or others established in divers coun-
tries to examine all books before they
go to the press, and to see they contain
nothing contrary to faith and good man-
ners.

In England, we had formerly an officer
of this kind, under the title of licenser of
the press ; but since the revolution our
press has been laid under no such re-
straint.

CENT, in commerce, an abridgement
of centum, is used to express the profit
or loss arising from the sale of any com-
modity. Thus we say, there is 10 per
cent, profit, or 10 per cent, loss which is
one-tenth profit, or one-tenth loss, upon
the sale of the whole.

CENTAUREA, in botany, a genus of
the Syngenesia Polygamia Frustranea
class and order. Natural order of com-
pound flowers. Cinarocephabe, Jussieu.
There are seventy-seven species, of which
we shall only mention C. moschata, pur-
ple sweet centaury, which is an annual,
and has been many years propagated in
the English gardens, under the title of
Sultan flower, or sweet Sultan. It was
brought from the Levant, where it grows
naturally in arable land among the corn ;
it sends up a round, channelled stalk,
nearly three feet high, which divides in-
to many branches, from the sides of which
come out long naked peduncles, each

CENTER.

MUtaifiipg a single head of flowers ; they
have u strong odour, so as to be very of-
fensive 10 many people ; they are purple,
\vime, or flesh-coloured ; there is also a
variety with tistula flowers, and another
\viui fringed flowers ; but these degene-
rate in a few years, however carefully the
seeds may be saved.

CENTER, in carpentry, an arch fram-
ed of wood, upon which a stone or brick
arch is turned.

CE'HTER, or CENTRE, in geometry, a
point equally distant from the extremities
ot a line figure, or body.

CENTER of a circle, a point in the mid-
dle of a circle, or circular figure, from
which all lines drawn to the circumfe-
rence are equal.

CENTER o/'a conic section, a point where-
in the diameters intersect each other. In
the ellipsis, this point is within the fi-
gure ; and in the hyperbola, without.

CENTER oj a curve of the higher kind, the
point wher. two diameters concur. When
all the diameters concur in the same
point, Sir Isaac Newton calls it the gene-
ral cenier.

CENTER of an ellipsis, the point where
the transverse and conjugate diameters
intersect each other.

CENTER of gravitation and attraction, in
physics, thai point to which the revolving
planet or comet is impelled or attracted
by the impetus of gravity.

CEJSTKK of gravity, in mechanics, that
point about winch all the parls of a body
do, in any situation, exactly balance each
other. Hence, 1. If a body be suspended
by this point as the center of motion, it
will remain at rest in any position indiffe-
rently. 2. If a body be suspended in any
other point, it can rest only in two posi-
tions, viz. when the said center of gravi-
ty is exactly above or below the point of
suspension. 3. When the center of gra-
vity is supported, the whole body is
kept from failing. 4. Because this point
has a constant endeavour to descend to
the center of the earth ; therefore, 5.
"When the point is at liberty to descend,
the whole body must also descend, ei-
ther by sliding, rolling, or tumbling
down. 6. The center of gravity in regu-
lar uniform and homogeneal bodies, as
squares, circles, &c. is the middle point
in a line connecting any two opposite
points or angles ; wherefore, if such a
line be bisected, the point of section will
be the center of gravity.

To find the center of gravity of a tri-
angle. LetBG (Plate 111. Miscell. fig.
1,) bisect the base A C of the triangle
A B C, it will also bisect every other line.

D E drawn parallel to the base, conse-
quently the center of gravity of the tri-
angle will be found somewhere in the
line B G. The area of the triangle may
be considered as consisting of an infinite
number of indefinitely small parallelo-
grams, D, E, b, a, each of which is to be
considered as a weight, and also as the
fluxion of the area of the triangle, and so
may be expressed by 2 y x, (putting B F
= x, and F E = y} if this fluxionary
weight be multiplied by its velocity x,
we shall have 2 y x x for its momentum.
Now put B G = a and A C = b, then
B G (a) : A C (b) :: B F (#) : D E =

— = 2 y, therefore the fluxion of the
weight 2 y x = X *; and the fluxion of
:, whence
• divided

the momenta 2 y x x = —
the fluent of the latter, viz.

by the fluent of the former, viz. -^ — will

2
give — x for the distance of the point

from B in the fine B F, which has a velo-
city equal to the mean velocity of all the
particles in the triangle D B E, and is
therefore its center of gravity. Conse-
quently the centre of gravity of any tri-
angle A B C, is distant from the vertex
B 2 B G, a right line drawn from the an-
gle B bisecting the base AC. And since
the section of a superficial or hollowr cone
is a triangle, and circles have the same
ratio as their diameters, it follows that the
circle, whose plane passes through the
center of gravity of the cone, is .2 of the
length of the side distant from the vertex
of the said cone.

To find the center of gravity of a solid
cone. As the cone consists of an infinite
number of circular areas, which may be
considered as so many weights, the cen-
ter of gravity may be found as before, by
putting B E == x (fig. 2.) B G = a, the
circular area D F E = y, and A G C = b ;
and from the nature of the cone, a1 : x3-

ion of the weights ; and y x x -.

=x fluxion of the momenta, whence the

fluent of the latter, viz. -— -, divided by

the fluent of the former—

will give

CENTER.

£ x for the center of gravity of the part
D B E F, consequently the center of gra-
vity of the cone A B C G is distant from '
the vertex B £ of the side B G, in a circle
parallel to the base.

To find the center of gravity in a paral-
lelogram and parallelepiped, draw the
diagonal A D and E G (fig. 3,) likewise
C B and H F ; since each diagonal A I)
and C B divides the parallelogram A C D B
into two equal parts, each passes through
the center of gravity : consequently the
point of intersection, I, must be the cen-
ter of gravity of the parallelogram. In
like manner, since both the plane C B F H
and A D G E divide the parallelepiped
into two equal parts, each passes through
its center of gravity, so that the common
intersection I K is the diameter of gravi-
ty, the middle whereof is the center.
After the same manner may the center
of gravity be found in prisms and cylin-
ders, it being the middle point of the
right line that joins the center of gravity
of their opposite bases.

The center of gravity of a parabola is
found as in the triangle and cone. Thus,
let B F in the parabola ABC (fig. 4) be
equal to x, D E = y, then will y x be the
fluxionary weight, and yxx the fluxion of
the momenta ; but from the nature of the
curve we have y = x$ ; whence yx = x$
"

x, and y xx = x*xx, whose fluent -x%
divided ^.rf the fluent of x*x will give -

O 3

x = —B F for the distance of the center of

gravity from the vertex B in the part of
D B E ; and so J of B G is that center in
the axis of the whole parabola ABC
from the vertex B.

The center of gravity in the human
body is situated in that part which is call-
ed the pelvis, or in the middle between
the hips. For the center of gravity of
segments, parabolics, conoids, spheroids,
&c: we refer to Wolfius.

CENTER of gravity of two or more bodies,
a point so situated in a right line joining
the centers of these bodies, that, if this
point be suspended the bodies will equi-
ponderate and rest in any situation. In
two equal bodies it is at equal distances
from both : when the bodies are unequal,
it is nearer to the greater body, in pro-
portion as it is greater than the other ; or
the distances from the centers are in-
versely as the bodies. Let A (fig. 5,) be
greater than B, join A B, upon which
take the point C, so that C A : C B : : B :

A, or that A X C A = B xCB; then is*
C the center of gravity of the bodies A
and B. If the center of gravity of three
bodies be required, first find C the center
of gravity of A and B ; and supposing a
body to be placed there equal to the sum
of A and B, find G the center of gravity
of it and D ; then shall G be the center of
gravity of the three bodies A, B, and D.
In like manner the center of gravity of
any number of bodies is determined.

The sum of the products that arise by
multiplying the bodies by their respective
distances, from a right line or plane given
in position, is equal to the product of the
sum of the bodies multiplied by the dis-
tance of the center of gravity from the
same right line or plane, when all the
bodies are on the same side of it : but
when some of them are on the opposite
side, their products, when multiplied by
their respective distances from it, are to
be considered as negative, or to be sub-
ducted. Let I L, (fig. 6.) be the right
line given in position, C the center of
gravity of the bodies A and B ; A a, B bt
C c} perpendiculars to I L in the points
a, b, and c : then if the bodies A and B be
on the same side of I L we shall find A -j-
Aa-f6xB6 = A-f B X C c. For draw-
ing through C, the right line M N" paral-
lel to I L meeting A a in M, and B b in N,
we have A : B :: B C : A C by the proper-
ty of the center of gravity, and conse-
quently A : B :: B N : A M, or A x A M
= BxBN; but A x A a + B X B 6=
AxCc-f A x AM-f-BxCc — B xB

N= AxCc-r-BxCc = A-r-BxCc.
When B is on the other side of the right
line I L (fig. 7,) and C on the same side
with A, then AxAa — B X B £ =: A X
Cc+Ax AM— B xBN-fBxCc==
A -}- B X C c -, and when the sum of the
products of the bodies on one side of I L,
multiplied by their distances from it, is
equal to the sum of the products of the
bodies multiplied by their distances on
the other side of I L, then C c vanishes,
or the common center of gravity of all
the bodies falls on the right line 1 L.

Hence it is demonstrable, that when
any number of bodies move in right
lines with uniform motions, their com-
mon center of gravity moves likewise in
a right line with an uniform motion ; and
that the sum of their motions, estimated in
any given direction, is precisely the same
as if all the bodies in one mass were car-
ried on with the direction and motion of
their common center of gravity.

CEVTETI of an hyperbota, a point in the
middle of the transverse axis.

CEN

,q/ magnitude, of any homoge-
neal body, the same with the center of
gravity.

CENTER of motion, that point which
remains* at rest, while all the other
pi.rts o( a body move about it And this
is the same in uniform bodies of the
s-iiDc- matter throughout, as the center of
gnu ity.

CENTER of oscillation, that point in a
pendulum, in which, if the weight of the
several parts thereof were collected,
each vibration would be performed in
the same time as when those weights
are separate. This is the point from
whence the length of a pendulum is
measured, which, in our latitude, in a
pendulum that swings seconds, is 39
inches and _*

The center of suspension is the point
on which the pendulum hangs.

Jl general rule for finding the center of
oscillation. If several bodies be fixed to an
inflexible rod suspended on a point, and
each body be multiplied by the square of
its distance from the point of suspension,
and then each body be multiplied by its
distance from the same point, and all the
former products, when added together,
be divided by all the latter products add-
ed together, the quotient which shall
arise from thence will be the distance of
the center of oscillation of these bodies
from the said point.

Thus if C F (fig. 8) be a rod on which
are fixed the bodies A, 15, D, &c. at the
several points A, B, D, &c. and if the body
A be multiplied by the square of the dis-
tance C A, and B be multiplied by the
square of the distance. C B, and so on for
the rest ; and then if the body A be mul-
tiplied by the distance C A, and B be
multiplied by the distance C B, and so on
for the rest; and if the sum of the pro-
ducts arising in the former case be divid-
ed by the sum of those which arise in the
latter, the quotient will give C Q the dis-
tance of the center of oscillation of the
bodies A, B, D, &c. from the point C.
To determine the center of oscillation of
the rectangle R I H S (fig. 9) suspended
on the middle point A of the side R I, and
oscillating about its axis R I. Let R I =
S H = a, A P = x, then will P p = dx
and the element or the area, consequently
one weight = ad x and its momentum
a x d x. Wherr fore saxzdx:saxdx
= JL a #3 : $ a x- = 2 Xf indefinitely ex-
presses the distance of the center of os-
cillation fram the axis of oscillation in the
segment R C D I. If then for x be sub-
stituted the altitude of the whole rec-

tangle R S = b, the distance of the cen-
ter of oscillation from the axis will be
found = -| £•

The center of oscillation in an equila-
teral triangle S A H oscillating about its
axis R 1, parallel to the base S H, is found
at a distance from the vertex A equal to
| A Ethe altitude of the triangle.

The center of oscillation in an equila-
teral triangle S A H oscillating about its
base S H, is found at a distance from the
vertex A = £ A E.

For the centers of oscillation of para-
bolas and curves of the like kind oscillat-
ing about their axes parallel to their bases,
they are found as follows. In the apol-
lonian parabola, the distance of the cen-
ter of oscillation from the axis = *
AE.

In the cubical paraboloid, the distance
of the center from the axis _7 A E. In a
biquadratic paraboloid, the distance of the
center from the axis = _?_ A E.

CENTER of percussion, in a moving body,
that point wherein the striking force is
greatest, or that point, with which, if the
body strikes against any obstacle, no
shock shall be felt at the point of suspen-
sion.

The center of percussion, when the
striking body revolves round a fixed
point, is the same with the center of os-
cillation, and consequently may be deter-
mined by the same rule.

Hence a stick of a cylindrical figure,
supposing the center of motion at the
hand, will strike the greatest blow at a
distance about two-thirds of its length
from the hand.

The center of percussion is the same
with the center of gravity, if all the
parts of the striking body be carried
with a parallel motion, or with the same
celerity.

CENTER of a parallelogram, or polygon,
the point in which its diagonals inter-
sect.

CENTER of a sphere, a point in the mid-
dle, from which all lines drawn to the
surface are equal. Hermes Trismegistus
defines God an intellectual sphere, whose
center is every where, and circumference
no where.

CENTINEL, or CENTRT, in military
language, is a private soldier, from the
guard posted upon any spot of ground, to
stand and watch carefully for the security
of the said guard, or of any body of troops,
or post, and to prevent any surprise from
the enemy. All centinels are to be very vi-

CENTRAL FORCES.

font on their posts ; neither are they to
sing, smoke, or suffer any noise to be made
near them. They are not to sit down,
lay their arms out of their hands, or sleep ;
but keep moving about their posts during
the two hours they stand, if the weather
will allow of it. No centry to move more
than 50 paces to the right, and as many to
the left of his post; and let the weather be
ever so bad, he must not get under any
other cover but that of the centry box.
No one to be allowed to go from his post
without leave from his commanding offi-
cer ; and to prevent desertion or maraud-
ing, the Gentries and videttes must be
charged to let no soldier pass.

CENTRAL forces, the powers which
cause a moving body to tend towards, or
recede from, the center of motion.

If a body A (plate III. Miscel. fig. 10.)
be suspended at the end of a string A C,
moveabie about a point C, as a centre,
and in that position it receive an impulse
in an horizontal direction, it will be there-
by compelled to describe a circle about
the central point. While the circular mo-
tion continues, the body will certainly en-
deavour to recede from the center, which
is called its centrifugal force, and arises
from the horizontal impetus. With this
force it acts upon the h'xed center-pin,
and that, by its immobility, re-acts with
an equal force on the body, by means
of the string, and solicits it towards the
center of motion; whence it is called
the centripetal force ; and when we speak
of either or both indefinitely, they are
called the central forces of the revolving
body.

The doctrine of central forces makes
a considerable branch of the Newtonian
philosophy, and has been greatly cultiva-
ted by mathematicians, on account of its
extensive use in the theory of gravity,
and other physical and mathematical
sciences.

In this doctrine it is supposed, that
matter is equally indifferent to motion or
rest ; or that a body at rest never moves
itself; and that a body in motion never of
itself changes either the velocity or the
direction of its motion ; but that every
motion would continue uniformly, and its
direction rectilinear, unless some exter-
nal force or resistance should affect it, or
act upon it. Hence, when a bodyat rest
always tends to move, or when the veloci-
ty; of any rectilinear motion is continually
accelerated or retarded, or when the di-
rection of a motion is continually changed,
and a curve line is thereby described, it
Is supposed that these circumstances pro-

\OT, m.

ceed from the influence of some power
that acts incessantly ; which power may
be measured, in the first case, by the
pressure of the quiescent body against
the obstacle which prevents it from mov-
ing, or by the velocity gained or lost
in the second case, or by the flexure of
the curve described in the third case ;
due regard being had to the time in
which these effects are produced, and
other circumstances, according to the
principles of mechanics. Now the power
or force of gravity produces effects of
each these kinds, which fall under our
constant observation near the surface of
the earth : for the same power which
renders bodies heavy, while they are at
rest, accelerates their motion when they
descend perpendicularly ; and bends the
track of the motion into a curve line,
when they are projected in a direction
oblique to that of their gravity. But we
can judge of the forces or powers that
act on the celestial bodies by effects of
the last kind only. And hence it is, that
the doctrine of central forces is of so
much use in the theory of the planetary
motions.

Sir Isaac Newton has tr ited of central
forces in his Principia, and has demon-
strated this fundamental theorem, viz. that
the areas which .evolving bodies describe,
by radii drawn to an immoveable centre,
lie in the same immoveable planes, and
are proportional to the times in which
they are described. •

The theory of this species of motion is
comprised in the following propositions.
1 When two or more bodies revolve at
equal distances from the center of the
circle they describe, but with unequal
velocities, the central forces necessary
to retain them will be to each other as the
squares of their velocities. That is, if one
revolves twice as fast as the other, it will
require four times the retaining force the
other does ; if with three times the ve-
locity, it will require nine times the force
to retain it in its orb, 8cc.

2. When two or more bodies move with
equal velocities, but at unequal distances
from the center they revolve about, their
central forces must be inversely as their
distances. That is, by how many times
greater the distance a body revolves at
is from the center, so many times less
force will retain it.

3. When two or more bodies perform
their revolutions in equal times, but at
different distances from the center they
revolve about, the forces requisite to re-
tain them in their orbs will l»e to eacfo other

CENTRAL FORCES.

as the distance they revolve at from the
center : for instance, if one revolves at
twice the distance the other does, it will
require a double force to retain it, &c.

4. When two or more bodies revolving
at different distances from the centre are
retained by equal centripetal forces, their
velocities will be such, that their periodi-
cal times will be to each other as the
square roots of their distances. That is,
if one revolves at four times the distance
another does, it will peiform a revolution
in twice the time that the other does ; if
at nine times the distance, it will revolve
in thrice the time.

5. And, in general, whatever be the dis-
tances, the velocities, or the periodical
times of the revolving bodies, the retain-
ing forces will be to each other in a
ratio compounded of their distances di-
rectly, and the squares of their periodical
times inversely. Thus, for instance, if
one revolves at twice the distance another
does, and is three times as long in moving
round, it will require two-ninths, that is,
two-ninths of the retaining power the
other does.

6. If several bodies revolve at differ-
ent distances from one common center,
and the retaining power lodged in that
center decrease as the squares of the
distances increase, the squares of the
periodical times of these bodies will be
to each other as the cubes of their dis-
tances from the common center. That is,
if there be two bodies, whose distances,
when cubed, are double or treble, 8cc.
of each other, then the periodical times
will be such, as that when squared only
they shall also be double, or treble, &c.

7. If a body be turned out of its rec-
tilineal course by virtue of a central
force, which decreases as you go from the
seat thereof as the squares of the distances
increase ; that is, which is inversely as the
square of the distance, the figure that
body shall describe, if not a circle, will be
a parabola, an ellipsis, or an hyperbola ;
and one of the foci of the figure will be at
the seat of the retaining power. That is,
if there be not that exact adjustment be-
tween the projectile force of the body and
the central power necessary to cause it to
describe a circle, it will then describe one
of those other figures, one of whose foci
will be where the seat of the retaining
power is.

8. If the force of the central power de-
creases as the square of the distance in-
creases, and several bodies revolving
about the same describe orbits that are
elliptical, the squares of the periodical
times of these bodies will be to each other

as the cubes of their mean distances from
the seat of that power.

9. If the retaining power decrease
something faster as you go from the seat
thereof (or, which is the same thing, in-
crease something faster as you come to-
wards it) than in the proportion mention-
ed in the last proposition, and the orbit
the revolving body describes be not a
circle, the axis of that figure will turn the
same way the body revolves : but if the
said power decrease (or increase) some-
what slower than in that proportion, the
axis of the figure will turn the contrary
way. Thus, if a revolving body, as D,
(fig. 11) passing from A towards B, de-
scribe the figure A D B, whose axis A B
at first points, as in the figure, and the
power whereby it is retained decrease
faster than the square of the distance in-
creases, after a number of revolutions, the
axis of the figure will point towards P,
and after that towards. R, &c. revolving
round the same way with the body ; and
if the retaining power decrease slower
than in that proportion, the axis will turn
the other way.

Thus it is the heavenly bodies, viz. the
planets, both primary and secondary,
and also the comets, perform their respec-
tive revolutions. The figures in which
the primary planets and the comets re-
volve are ellipses, one of whose foci is at
the sun ; the areas they describe, by lines
drawn to the center of the sun, are in
each proportional to the times in which
they are described. The squares of
their periodical times are as the cubes of
their mean distances from the sun. The
secondary planets describe also circles or
ellipses, one of whose foci is in the cen-
ter of their primary ones, &c.

From what has been said may be de-
duced the velocity and periodic time of
a body revolving in a circle, at any given
distance from the earth's center, by means
of its own gravity. Put ^-=16^ feet, the
space described by gravity, at the surface,
in the first second of time, viz. = A M j
then putting- r = the radius A C ; it is
AE =V A B X A M = ^/ TJ~r the
velocity in a circle at its surface in one
second of time ; and hence, putting c =
3.14159 &c.the circumference of the earth
being 2 cr = 25,000 miles, or 132,000,000

/2r

feet, it will be ^/ 2 g r : 2 cr :: I" : c<J —

=» 5078 seconds nearly, or lh 24m 38s, the
periodic time at the circumference : also
the velocity there, or x/2j7"is =26,000
feet per second nearly. Then, since the

CEN

force of gravity varies in the inverse dupli-
cate ratio of the distance, by the rules laid
down, it isv/R : ^/r -.: v or 26,000 : 26,000

= V, the velocity of a body re-
volving about the earth at the distance R ;
and ^/ r3 •. ^/ R3 :: t, or 5078" : 5078 1^1

^r 7*3

= T, the time of revolution in the same.
So if, for instance, it be the moon revolv-
ing about the earth at the distance of 60
semi-diameters ; then R = 60 r, and the
above expressions become V = 26,000
\/-^5 =3357 feet per second, or 38 1 miles
per minute, for the velocity of the moon
in lier orbit; and T = 5078 /5i:

2,360,051 seconds, or 27T3^ days nearly,
for the periodic time of the moon in her
orbit at that distance.

Thus, also, the ratio of the forces of
gravitation of the moon towards the sun
and earth may be estimated. For one
year, or 3651. days, being the periodic
time of the earth and moon about the
sun, and 27^3 dayS, the periodic time of
the moon about the earth, also 60 being
the distance of the moon from the earth,
and 23,920 the distance from the sun, in
semi-diameters of the earth, it is
60 23920 23902 27.3*

27.3> '' 365.251 "•' °r ~6TT~ X o65.25z
= 2.2; that is, the proportion of the moon's
gravitation towards the sun is to that to-
wards the earth as 21 to 1 nearly.

Again, we may hence compute the cen-
trifugal force of a body at the equator,
arising from the earth's rotation. For
the periodic time, when the centrifugal
force is equal to the force of gravity, it
has been shown above, is 5078 seconds ;
and* 23 Ijours, 56 minutes, or 86,160 se-
conds, is the period of the earth's rota-
tion on its axis; therefore, as 86,1602 :
5078* :: 1 : —J.^, the centrifugal force re-
quired, which therefore is the 289th part
of gravity at the earth's surface. See
Simpson's Fluxions, vol. i.

CENTRAL rule, a rule discovered by
Mr. Thomas Baker, whereby to find the
center of a circle designed to cut the pa-
rabola in as many points, as an equation
to be constructed hath real roots. Its
principal use is in the construction of
equations, and he has applied it with
good success as far as biquadratics.

The central rule is chiefly founded on
the property of the parabola, that if a line

be inscribed in that curve perpendicular
to any diameter, a rectangle formed of the
segments of the inscript is equal to the
rectangle of the intercepted diameter and
parameter of the axis.

The central rule has the advantage
over Des Cartes and De Latere's methods
of constructing equations, in that both
these are subject to the trouble of pre-
paring the equation, by taking away the
second term.

CENTRIFUGAL force, that force by
which all bodies that move round any
other body in a curve endeavour to fly off
from the axis of their motion in a tangent
to the periphery of the curve, and that in
every point of it.

Mr. Huygens demonstrates, that this
force is always proportional to the cir-
cumference of the curve in which the re-
volving body is oarried round. The cen-
trifugal force of any body is to the cen-
tripetal as the square of the arch which
a body describes in a given time, divided
by the diameter, to the space through
which a heavy body moves, in falling from
a place where it was at rest in the same
time.

If any body swim in a medium heavier
than itself, the centrifugal force is the
difference between the specific weight of
the medium and the floating body.

All moving bodies endeavour after a
rectilinear motion, because it is the easi-
est, shortest, and most simple : whenever
therefore they move in any curve, there
must be something that draws them from
their rectilinear motion, and detains them
in their orbits; and were that force to
cease, the moving body would go straight
off in a tangent to the curve in that very
point, and so would get still further and
further from the focus, or center of its
curvilinear motion.

It may be, that in a curve where the
force of gravity in the describing body is
continually variable, the centrifugal force
may also continually vary in the same
manner, and so that one may also supply
the defect, or abate for the excess of the
other, and consequently the effect be
every where equal to the absolute gravity
of the revolving body.

CENTRIFUGAL J\facMne, a curious ma-
chine for raising water by means of a
centrifugal force, combined with the pres-
sure of the atmosphere. This machine
consists of a large tube of copper, &c. in
the form of a cross, placed perpendicu-
larly in the water, and resting at the bot-
tom on a pivot. At the upper part of the
tube is an horizontal cog-wheel, which

CEN

CEP

touches the cogs of another in a vertical
position ; so that by the aid of a double
winch, the whole machine is moved round
with very great velocity. Near the bot-
tom of the perpendicular part of the tube
is a valve opening upwards ; and near the
two extremities, but on the contrary sides
of the arms, or cross part of the tube, are
two other valves opening outwards. These
two valves are kept shut, by means of
springs, till the machine is put in motion,
when the centrifugal velocity of the wa-
ter forces them open, and discharges it-
self into a cistern or reservoir placed
there for that purpose. On the upper
part of the arm are two holes, which are
closed by pieces that screw into the metal
of the tube. Before the machine can work,
these holes must be opened, and water
poured in through them, till the whole
tube be full : by these means all the air
will be forced out of the machine, and
the water supported in the tube by means
of the valve at the bottom. The tube
being thus filled with water, and the
holes closed by their screw-caps, it is
turned round by the winch, when the
water in the arms of the tube acquires
a centrifugal force, opens the valves near
the extremities of the arms, and flies out
with a velocity nearly equal to that of the
extremities of the said arms.

If the men who work the machine be
supposed to turn the winch round in three
seconds, the machine will move round its
axis in one second ; and, consequently,
each extremity of the arms will move
with a velocity of 18.8 feet in a second.
A column of water, therefore, of three
inches diameter, will issue through each
of the valves with a^ velocity of 18.8 feet
in a second ; but the area of the aperture
of each of the valves is 7. 14 inches; which,
being multiplied by the velocity in inches
= 125. 6, gives 1610.784 cubic inches, the
quantity of water discharged through one
. of the apertures in one second ; so that
the whole quantity discharged in that
space of time through both the apertures
is = 3221.568 inches ; or 193294.08 cubic
inches in one minute. But 6U812 cubic
inches make a tun, beer-measure ; con-
sequently, if we suppose the centrifugal
machine to revolve round its axis m one
second, it will raise nearly 3 tuns 44 gal-
lons in one minute ; but this velocity is too
great, at least to be maintained for any
considerable time ; so that, when this
and other deficiencies in the machine
are allowed for, two tuns are nearly the
quantity that can be raised by it in one
minute. As the water is forced up the

perpendicular tube by the pressure of
the atmosphere, it is evident that this
machine cannot raise water above thirty-
two feet high.

CENTRIPETAL force, that force by
which a body is every where impelled, or
any how tends towards some point as a
center; such is gravity, or that force
whereby bodies tend towards the center
of the earth ; mag'uetical attraction,
whereby the load-stone draws iron ; and
that force, whatever it be, whereby the
planets are continually drawn back from
right-lined motions, and made to move in
curves.

The greater the quantity of matter in
any body is, the greater will be its centri-
petal force, all things else alike. If a
body laid upon a plane revolve at the same
time, and about the same center with that
plane, and so describe a circle ; and if the
centripetal force, wherewith the body is
drawn every moment towards the center,
should cease to act, and the plane should
continue to move with the same velocity,
the body will begin to recede from the
center about which the plane moved. See
CE \TIIAL for ces.

CENTRISCUS, in natural history, a
genus of fishes, ranked among the bran-
chiostegous order of Linnaeus, but by Dr.
Shaw among the Cartilagenei. Generic
character : snout lengthened ; body com-
pressed, carinated beneath ; ventral fins
united. There are but three species ;
viz. the scutatus, scolopax, and the veli-
taris. All are found in the Indian seas,
and the scolopax is likewise a native of
the Mediterranean.

CENT ROG ASTER, in natural history,
a genus of fishes of the order Thoracici.
Generic character; head compressed,
smooth ; gill-membraned, mostly seven
rayed ; body depressed, smooth ; fins spi-
nous ; ventral connected by a membrane,
with four sharp spines, and six soft rays.
There are four species.

CENTUNCULUS, in botany, a genus
of the Tetrandria Monogynia class and
order. Natural order of Rotacese. Lysi-
machiae, Jussieu. Essential character :
calyx four-cleft ; corol four-cleft, spread-
ing: stamina short ; capsules one-celled,
opening horizontally. There is but one
species, viz. C. minimus, bastard pimper-
nel, is an annual, and a native of Italy,
France, Germany, and Denmark — with us
on Hounslow-heath, Ashibrd-common,
near Hampton Court, Chiselhurst; &c. It
flowers from June to August.

CEPHAELIS, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-

CER

her : flowers in heads, involucred ; corol .
tubular; stigma two-parted; berry two-
seeded ; receptacle chaffy. There are 12
species, found chiefly in the West Indies.

CEPHALANTHUS, in botany, button
•wood, button tree, or pond dogwood, a
genus of the Tetrandria Monody nia class
and order. Natural order of Ag-gregatse.
Rubiaceae, Jussieu. EssenVial ciiaracter : .
calyx common, none ; proper superior,
funnel form ; receptacle globular, naked ;
seed one, lanuginous. There are five
species, of which C. occidenalis, Ameri-
can button wood, is a shru>, which in
this country is seldom higher than seven
feet. The branches come oit by pairs
opposite at each joint ; tin ends of
which are terminated by loos< spikes of
spherical heads, about the sizeof a mar-
ble, each of which is composec of many
small flowers, of a whitish ydlovv co-
lour, fastened to an axis in the middle ;
these appear in July, and in \\\rm sea-
sons are succeeded by seeds which
sometimes ripen.

CEPHALIC medicines are remedies for
disorders of the head.

CEPHALOPHORA, in botanv a ge-
nus of the Syngenesia jEqualis qttss and

down
e spe-

istella-
See

band-

order : receptacle chaffy -fleshy
simple ; calyx ovate, imbricate. (
cies, found in Guinea.

CEPHEUS, in astronomy, a c
tion of the northern hemispher
ASTRONOMT.

CEPOLA, in natural history, tl
jish, a genus of fishes of the oder of
Thoracici. Generic character : head
short ; teeth curved, sharp ; bod very
long and compressed ; abdoma ex-
tremely short ; gill membrane sfc-ray-
ed. There are three species accvding
to Gmelin, viz. 1. C. taenia, or a'very
band-fish, with red fins, very obtuseiead
and attenuated tail. Tins fish swim with
great rapidity, and presents a beatiful
spectacle by the undulating flexurs of
its body. It lives on the smaller kid of
crabs and shell-fish ; and as it freqijnts
the shores, it is often used as a bai for
other fishes. 2. C. rubescens, rectish
band-fishf; and 3. C. Trachyptera .- bth
natives of the Mediterranean. Dr. Saw
mentions another species, viz. C. fer-
manniaena.

CERAMBYX, in natural history, a |e-
nus of insects of the order Coleoptep.
Antennae setaceous ; feelers four ; thoix
spinous or gibbous ; shells linear. >f
this very beautiful and finely variegatld
family, many hundred species have, kr
naturalists, been noticed and describe}.
They have separated them into four di

sions, viz. A. feelers equal, filiform ; the
subdivisions in this class are, a. jaw cy-
lindrical, entire ; in some the thorax ,has
moveable spines, in others the thorax is
margined ; b. jaw obtuse, one-toothed ;
c. jaw bifid, horny ; d. jaw bifid, mem-
brunaceous, thorax unarmed. B. feelers
equal, capitate ; thorax spinous. C. feel-
ers equal, clavate ; thorax unarmed. D.
feelers unequal, the two fore-ones fili-
form, the hind-ones clavate. The larva
of this, genus resemble soft, oblong,
slender worms, with a scaly head and six
hard legs on the fore part: they bore
through the inner parts of trees, pulve-
rizing the wood, and are transformed into
perfect insects in the cavities which they
make : many of them diffuse a strong
smell, perceivable at a great distance ;
and some when taken utter a sort of cry,
produced by the friction of the thorax on
the upper part of the abdomen and
shells. The antennae are deemed short
when they are shorter than the body ; mo-
derate when of equal length with the bo-
dy ; and long when they exceed the body.
In the division C. the species violaceus,
so called from the colour of its body, is
found chiefly in fir timber which has been
felled some time, and which has not been
stripped of its bark : it bores serpentine
cavities between the bark and the wood,
which are larger in diameter as the in-
sect increases in size, filling the space it
leaves behind with its excrement, which
resembles saw-dust.

CERASTIUM, in ootany, English
mouse-ear, or mouse-ear chichveed, a genus
of the Decandria Pentagynia class and
order. Natural order of Caryophyllei.
Essential character : calyx five-leaved ;
petals bifid ; capsules unilocular, gaping
at the tip. There are eighteen species.
None of the mouse-ear chickweeds make
much appearance, and are therefore only
cultivated in botanic gardens. Some of
them are common weeds in most parts of
Europe ; the smoother sorts are not dis-
agreeable to cattle ; the seeds are useful
to birds.

CERATE. See PHARMACY and WAX.

CERA TOCARPUS, in botany, a genus
of the Monoecia Monandria class and or-
der. Natural order of Holoraceae. Atrip-
lices, Jussieu. Essential character : male,
calyx one-leafed, bifid ; corol none ; fe-
male calyx one-leafed, keeled, permanent,
two-horned ; styles two : seeds single,
compressed, inclosed in and covered by
the calyx. There is but one species,
viz. C. arenarius, is an annual branching
plant, with very narrow leaves. Three
male flowers, sessile in each division of

CER

the stems; females solitary, sessile in
each axilla of the leaves. It has no pro-
per pericarp, but the calyx when ripe
becomes a sort of oblong-triangular com-
pressed sheath, with a ridge on each
side and two innocuous spines, diverg-
ing almost horizontally at the end. With-
in this is a single obovate seed, com-
pressed, and at bottom very sharp-point-
ed, which does not drop from its cover-
ing. Native of Tartary.

CERATON1A, in botany, English ca-
rob tree, St. John's bread, a genus of the
Polygamia Trioecia class and order. Na-
tural order of Lome ntacex. Leguminosse,
Jussieu. Essential character : hermaphro-
dite ; calyx five parted ; corol none ; sta-
mens five ; style filiform ; legume coria-
ceous ; many seeded ; dioecous ; male
and female separate. There is but one
species, viz. C. siliqua, the carob tree,
which is a native of Syria, Palestine,
Egypt, Cyprus, Candia, Sicily, Apulia,
Spain, &c.

CERATOPETALUM, in botany, a ge-
nus of the Decandria Monogynia class
and order. Calyx five-parted, permanent,
bearing the stamina ; petals five, pinnati-
fid ; antherse spurred ; capsule covered
in the bottom of the calyx ; two celled.
One species, a native of New Holland.

CERATOPHYLLUM, in botany, a ge-
nus of the Monoecia Polyandria class and
order. Natural order of Inundatae. Nai-
ades, Jussieu. Essential character : male
calyx many-part°# ; corol none ; stamens
sixteen to twenty ; female, calyx many-
parted ; corolla none ; pistils one ; style
none ; seed one, naked. There are two
species, viz. C. demersum, prickly-seeded
horn wort ; and C. submersura, smooth-
seeded horn wort. They grow in ditches
and slow streams, flowering in August
and September in Europe ; also in
Japan. It is common in Jamaica, called
there morass weed, and used to cover
fish, &c. when carried to any distance.

CERBERA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Contorts. Apocineaa,
Jussieu. Essential character r contorted ;
drupe one-seeded. There are five spe-
cies, of which C. ahouai, oval-leafed cer-
bera, grows naturally in the Brazils, and
also in the Spanish West Indies in plen-
ty ; and there are some of the trees
growing in the British Islands of Ameri-
ca. This tree is about ten feet high, send-
ing out many crooked diffused branches,
which toward the top has thick succulent
leaves, about three inches long and near
two broad, of a lucid green colour, full
of a miiky juice, as is every part of the

CER

tree. The flowers come out in loose
bunches at the end of the branches ; they
are of a cream colour. It flowers in July,
but never produces fruit in England.
The wood of this tree is exceedingly of-
fensive, and the kernels of the nuts are a
most deadly poison.

CERCARIA, in natural history, a ge-
nus of the Vermes infusoria : worm in-
visible to the naked eye, pellucid, and
furnished w.th, a tail. There are 13
species, of which C. gyrinus is round,
with a sharf pointed tail ; found in ani-
mal infusiois; white, gelatinous, fore-
part nearl; globular. C. catellus ; body
three-parud, with a forked tail ; is met
with in waers where flowers have been
kept ; h'ad moveable, affixed to the
body by s point ; abdomen not so wide,
but twice as long as the head, and filled
with int-stines; tail shorter than the
head anl narrower than the abdomen,
ending it two bristles, which it can unite
and seprate at pleasure ; C. mutabilis,
changeble, cylindrical, red or green,
with a pointed slightly bifid tail ; found
in stagiant pools in such innumerable
myriad, as to cover the whole surface
with asheet of green or red, giving it
sometines the appearance of being ting-
ed will blood ; varies its posture from a
long clindrical body, larger in the mid-
dle, t< a nearly globular one ; the ex-
tremitis are pellucid.

CEKJIS, in botany, English Judas tree,
a gens of the Decandria Monogynia
class ad order. Natural order of Lomen-
taceae. Leguminosze, Jussieu. Essential
charaier : calyx five-toothed, gibbous
below; corol papilionaceous ; standard
short beneath the wings ; legume.
Ther are two species, viz. C. siliquas-
trumcommon Judas tree ; and C. cana-
dens», Canada Judas tree, or red bud-
ding.ree. These trees are usually plant-
ed vth other flowering trees, for orna-
mers to pleasure gardens, and for their
sinftlar beauty deserve a place as well as
mo. other sorts. The wood is also beau-
tifdy veined with black and green, and,
takng a fine polish, may be converted to
may uses.

EREBELLUM, in anatomy, the hind-
erpart of the brain. See AJTATOMY.

jEREBRUM, in anatomy, denotes the
biin, but more particularly applies to
tb anterior and larger portion of the
bain, separated from the cerebellum by
te tentorium. See AXATOMT.
CEREMONIES, master of the, an officer
istituted by King James I. for the more
bnourable reception of ambassadors and
gangers of quality ; he wears about his

CER

neck a chain of gold, with a medal witli
the crown of Great Britain, having on
one side an emblem of peace, with tne
motto, JSeati pacifici ; and on the otter,
an emblem of war, with Dieu et mon droit ,-
his salary is three hundred pounds pe.r
annum,

CERINTHE, in botany, English honey-
ivort, a genus of the Pentandria Monogy-
nia class and order. Natural order of
Asperifolire. Borragineae, Jussieu. Es-
sential character: border of the corolla
tube-bellied ; throat pervious ; seeds two,
bilocular. There are two species, of
which C. major, great honey wort, is about
eighteen inches high, round, smooth,
branching, and leafy. Leaves glaucous,
becoming blue by age, without prickles,
but ciliated about the edge, dotted with
white. The tube of the corolla is yel-
low, but the border is purple : the tooth-
lets very short and revolute. C. minor,
small honeywort, is very nearly allied to
the foregoing; the corolla five-cleft to
one-third of the length, whereas that is
only five-lobed at the edge. Annual when
sown in the spring, but biennial when
sown in autumn. Both these plants are
natives of France, Italy, Switzerland, and
Germany.

CERITE. See CERIUM.

CERIUM, in chemistry, a new metal
obtained from a fossil found in Sweden,
to which has been given the name of Ce-
rite. This fossil occurs disseminated or
massive ; it is of a flesh red colour, more
or less deep, with sometimes a shade of
yellow : it is semi-transparent : its fresh
fracture has considerable lustre. It strikes
fire with steel with difficulty : is not at-
tracted by the magnet : its specific gra-
vity is from 4.7 to 4.9. Exposed to a strong
heat it does not melt, but loses 5 or 6 per
cent, of weight, becomes friable, and ac-
quires a bright yellow colour. With bo-
rax it forms a globule, greenish while hot,
but colourless when cold. From 100 parts
of it, the Swedish chemists obtained about
50 of oxide of cerium, 22 oxide of iron,
23 silex, and 5.5 carbonate of lime. Ac-
cording to Vauquelin's analysis, the pro-
portions are, oxide of cerium 63, silex
17.5, oxide of iron 2, lime from 3 to 4,
water 12. The pure oxide of cerium is
extracted from the cerite, by dissolving
this mineral in nitromuriatic acid, and, af-
ter saturating the clear solution with an
alkali, precipitating by tartrate of pot-
ash. The precipitate, well washed, cal-
cined, and digested in vinegar, is the ox-
ide of cerium.

The oxide of cerium exists in different
degrees of oxidizement. When precipi-

tated from its acid solutions by the alka-
lies, it is white, but acquires a shade of
yellow when dried in the air, and, when
exposed to a continued heat, becomes of
a brick red colour. The white, according
to Vauquelin, is the one at the lower de-
gree of oxidizement ; but the difference
in the proportion of oxygen is, he remarks,
inconsiderable. Neither of them can be
fused by heat. Borax determines their
fusion : the globule, heated by the exte-
rior flame of the blow-pipe, is of a blood-
red colour, which, by cooling, becomes of
a yellowish green, and, at length, colour-
less and transparent ; or, if the propor-
tion of oxide has been large, opaque and
pearly.

The metal itselfj in the trials which
Vauquelin made with it, proved insoluble
in any unmixed acid, and was dissolved
with great difficulty in nitro-muriatic acid.
Its oxide, however, combines with the
acids easily, and the properties of its salts
have been fully determined.

CEROPEGIA, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Contortae. Apo-
cineae, Jussieu. Essential character: con-
torted ; follicles two, erect ; seeds plu-
mose ; border of the corolla converging.
There are six species, of which C. can-
delabrum is a twining plant, with slender
stems, round, green, or reddish. Leaves
opposite, ovate, thick, soft and smooth.
The peduncle, and at first the flowers,
hang down, but when open they erect
themselves, and, being placed in a circle,
have the appearance of a set of lamps
suspended. The follicles or seed-vessels
hang down. It is a native of the East In-
dies.

CERTHIA, the creeper, in natural his-
tory, a genus of birds of the order Picae.
Generic character: bill sharp-pointed,
slender, and incurvated ; nostrils small ;
tongue varying in shape; legs somewhat
stout ; toes three before and one behind,
the latter large ; claws long and hooked ;
tail of twelve feathers.

These birds 'are distinguished from
humming birds, with which they have
sometimes been confounded, by the cir-
cumstances of their being to be met with
in every quarter of the world ; by their
bill universally terminating in a point; and
by their feeding in a great degree, though
not exclusively, on insects. There are n<3
less than forty-nine species, of which the
principal are,

C. familiaris, the tree-creeper of Albi-
nus. This bird is scarcely larger than
the crested wren, and is to be observed
in various parts of Europe, but especially

CER

€ER

in England. It runs on the bark of a tree
with extreme ease and rapidity, and the
instant it perceives a human being near,
it conceals itself on the opposite side of
the trunk or branch, repeating this move-
ment according to the corresponding
movement of the person whose notice it
wishes to avoid, and thus perpetually en-
deavouring, and almost in all cases with
success, to evade the observation of its
pursuer. It feeds almost solely on in-
sects, which it finds in the hollows, and
among the moss of trees.

C. Lotenia, or Loten's creeper, is a
native of Ceylon and Madagascar. It
builds its nest" of the down of plants, and
is subjected to the hostility of a spider
in those countries, nearly as large as it-
self, which pursues it with extreme ar-
dour, and delights in sucking the blood of
its young.

C. ccerulea, or blue creeper, is an inha-
bitant of Cayenne, and is remarkable for
the ingenuity it exhibits in the construc-
tion of its nest, by which it precludes
any attack from the monkeys and snakes,
as well as lizards, which abound in that
country. This nest is suspended from
some slender twig at the end of a branch,
to which those animals dare not venture,
as it would be too weak to support them.
The entrance to the nest is towards the
ground, and about a foot distant from
the body of it, to which the bird climbs
through a narrow neck of this extraordi-
nary length.

C. sannio, or mocking creeper, is found
in New-Zealand, has an agreeable note,
and can so modulate its voice, as seemingly
to imitate the notes of all birds : hence it
is called the mocking creeper. See Plate
IV. Aves, fig. 3.

CERTIFICATE, in law, a writing made
in any court, to give notice to another
court of any thing done therein. The
clerks of the crown, assize, and the peace,
are to make certificates into the King's
Bench, of the tenor of all indictments,
convictions, outlawries, &c.

CERTIORARI, a writ which issues out
of the chancery, directed to an inferior
court, to call up the records of a cause
there depending1* in order that justice
may be done. And this writ is obtained,
upon complaint that the party who seeks
it has received haM usage, or is not like
to have an impartial trial in the inferior
court. A certioyari is made returnable
either in the Kind's Bench, Common
Pleas, or in Chancery.

It is not only issued out of the Court of
Chancery, but likewise out of the King's
Bench, in which last-mentioned court it

lies, where the King- would be certified
for a record. Indictments from inferior
courts, and proceedings of the quarter
sessions of the peace, may also be re*
moved into the King's Bench by a cer-
tiorari ; and here the very record must
be returned, and not a transcript of it ;
though usually in Chancery, if a certiorari
be returnable there, it removes only a
tenor of the record.

CERVICAL nerves, in anatomy, are
eight pair of nerves, so called, as having
their origin in the neck.

CERUMEX, is a viscid yellow-colour-
ed liquid secreted by the glands of the
auditory canal, which gradually becomes
concrete by exposure to the air. It has
an orange-yellow colour and a bitter taste.
When slightly heated upon paper, it
melts, and stains the paper like an oil ;
at the same time it emits a slightly aro-
matic odour. On burning coals it softens,
emits a white smoke, which resembles
that given out by burning fat ; it after-
wards melts, swells, becomes dark-co-
loured, and emits an ammoniacal and em-
pyreumatic odour. A light coal remains
behind. When agitated in water, ceru-
men forms a kind of emulsion, which
soon putrefies, depositing at the same
time white flakes. Alcohol, when as-
sisted by heat, dissolves five-eighths of
the cerumen ; the three-eighths which
remain behind have the properties of al-
bumen, mixed however with a little oily
matter.

Ether also dissolves this oily body ;
but it is much less bitter and much
lighter coloured. When the albuminous
part of cerumen is burnt, it leaves traces
of soda and of phosphate of lime. From
these facts, Vauquelin considers ceru-
men as composed of the following sub-
stances :

1. Albumen

2. An inspissated oil

3. A colouring matter

4. Soda

5. Phosphate of lime.
CERUSSE, or -white lead, a substance

compounded of the acetic acid and lead.
It is formed by the metal plates of lead
being exposed to the vapours arising from
boiling vinegar, and the metal being oxy-
dized by the action of the air, aided by
the affinity of the acid. This has been
regarded either as an oxide or a sub-car-
bonate of lead; though it appears pro-
bable that it should contain some acetic
acid. It serves as the basis from which
the more perfect salt, the sugar of lead
of commerce, is formed ; the cerusse, in
fine powder, is boiled in distilled vinegar.

CERVUS.

the vfnegar being' poured off as it loses
its acidity, and fresh qualities being suc-
cessively added. The liquors thus pro-
cured are then evaporated nearly to the
consistence of honey ; and on cooling,
masses are formed, consisting of a con-
geries of needle-like prisms. From the
account given by Pontierof the manufac-
ture of this salt, it appears that it is also
formed by exposing plates of lead to the
action of distilled vinegar and of the at-
mospheric air : the plates, as they are in-
crusted with oxide at the surface of the
vinegar, are plunged to the bottom, until
this oxide is dissolved, and are again raised
to the surface. The acid is thus at length
saturated, and, by evaporation, the solu-
tion is brought to crystallize.

CEliVUS, the deer, in natural history,
a genus of Mamm-iiia of the order Peco-
ra. The generic character : horns solid,
and while the animal is young covered
with a hairy skin, growing from the top,
annual, branched and naked : eight front
teeth in the lower jaw : no canine teeth.
Tlvre are twelve species, of which we
shall particularly notice the C. Aces, or
the elk. This animal sometimes attains
the height of seventeen hands, and the
weight of twelve hundred and thirty
pounds ; but such cases are somewhat
extraordinary. It is larger in Asia and
America than in Europe. It abounds in
the cold countries of Sweden, -iberia, and
Canada, and in the last is called also the
moose deer. Its principal food is derived
from the boughs of the forest trees in these
desolate regions, and the night is gene-
rally preferred for its repasts. Its man-
ners are extremely gentle and inoffen-
sive ; it will however defend itself with
great courage and dexterity, both with its
horns and fore feet, and has been known,
with a single blow from the latter, to de-
stroy a wolf. Among the North Ameri-
can Indians the hunting of the elk is an
employment of considerable interest and
preparation One party is occupied in
surrounding a large tract of country near
the lakes or rivers, and, by means of their
dogs, in rousing the elks contained in it,
who, finding all escape from danger im-
practible by land, press onwards to the
water. Here, however, they are received
by another party of enemies, whose ca-
noes, extending in a crescent form, in-
close a considerable space, and reach
from shore to shore, and who destroy
their victims by clubs and lances. They
are often taken also by snares, into which
they are driven by the noises and alarms
efthe Indians, and in which thev are in-
VOT,. JIT.

extricably entangled amidst slips of raw
hides, or confined within so small a com-
pass, that they become sure marks for
the arrows of their adversaries. It is re-
marked of the elk, that when first dis-
lodged, he drops on the ground for a few
seconds, as if labouring under a complete
prostration of strength, occasioned, 'pro-
bably, by the influence of fear. This is the
moment invaluable to the hunter, who, if
he miss this opportunity, frequently fails
in every other, as the animal, after a very
short pause, is roused to the most vigor-
ous flight, which he continues, without
suspension, for a progress of twenty or
thirty miles.

In the bogs of Ireland, as well as in
America, horns have been repeatedly dug
up of an enormous size, which apparently
belonged to an animal of the deer kind,
but are far superior in dimensions to those
of any animal now known by naturalists,
Their length has sometimes been of eight
feet, and the distance from the tip of one
to that of another has extended to four-
teen feet. These are justly considered
as most curious specimens in the collec-
tion of natural productions, and the idea
of their annual reproduction is well calcu-
lated to excite astonishment. Mammalia
Plate VII L. fig. 1.

C. tarandus, or the rein deer. When
full grown, this animal is about the height
of four feet six inches, and both sexes
are furnished with horns, those of the
male, however, being much larger than
the females. It is found more abundantly
than any where else in Lapland and Nor-
way. It is met with in the north of Asia
so far as Kamschatka, and in America so
far south us Canada. With the Laplander
the rein deer is a complete substitute for
the horse, the cow, the sheep, and the
goat. He possesses two breeds of this
animal, the wild and the tame. The for-
mer of these are by far the most vigor-
ous, but are also of'en extremely obsti-
nate and not a little ferocious, turning
upon their drivers with dangerous, and
sometimes fatal, fury. The tame rein
deer, therefore, is almost universally pre-
ferred. It is trained when young to draw
the sledge, which is the common vehicle
of the country, which is made extremely
light, and covered with tiie skin of a young
deer. The deer is fastened to this car-
riage by a strap, which passes round his
neck, and comes down between his legs,
and is guided by a cord, tied round his
horns, and held by the driver, whose
cheering voice is perpetually exerted to
encourage the animal on his progress,

CERVUS.

And who is furnished also with a goad for
occasional applications. One of these
deer has been known several times to
draw its sledge and owner a journey of
fifty miles without stopping ; an exertion,
however, which is almost uniformly fatal
to it. To a progress of thirty miles with-
out halting it is a competent, without any
injury. The constant mode of travelling in
Lapland in winter is by means of the deer
and sledge. It is extremely speedy, yet
at the same time inconvenient and dan-
gerous, and can be accomplished only
when the snow is frozen and glazed. The
favourite food of this animal is a species
of moss, which, in Lapland, covers the
face of the country through large tracts,
and to obtain which, in winter, the horns
of the rein deer enable it to dig through
the snow with great facility. The atten-
tion paid by the Laplander to these ani-
mals constitutes his principal occupation.
In the rigour of winters they are shelter-
ed and nursed by him ; in the short sum-
mers they are led to the banks of the
lakes and rivers, or to the tops of the
mountains, where they may brouse on
the^r favourite lichen ; which, from the
fulness and sweetness of the pasture, sup-
plies all the richness and variety of his
temperate banquets, fig. 2

C. elaphus, or the stag. This animal is
found in nearly all the temperate climates
of Europe and Asia. It is also found in
North America, but attains its largest
size in Siberia. From the branchiness of
its horns, the elegance of its form and
movements, and the strength of its limbs,
it deservedly attracts particular admira-
tion, and may be regarded as a principle
embellishment of the forest. The stag
is remarkable for a fine eye and an acute
sense of smelling. Its ear, also, is ex-
quisitely sensible, and musical sounds ap-
pear to possess over him the power of
exciting complacency, if not rapture. His
enemies not unfrequently employ the
shepherd's pipe to decoy him to his de-
struction ; and Mr. Playford, in his " In-
troduction to Music," states, that he once
met a herd of twenty stags near Uoyston,
which readily followed the tones of a
violin and bagpipe, played by their con-
ductors, but stopped whenever the music
was suspended. Their whole progress
from Yorkshire to Hampton-court was
attended, and it was supposed extremely
facilitated, by these sounds. The Stag is
simple and unsuspicious, and employs no
arts to avoid detection or pursuit, until af-
,* er having received considerable molesta-
tion. His food consists, in winter, of

moss and bark ; in spring, of tire cat-
kins of willow and hazel, and the flowert
and buds of cornel; in summer, of the
grain of rye and the tender shoots of the
aider ; in autumn, of the leaves of bram-
bles, and the flowers of heath and broom.
He eats with slowness, and ruminates
with some considerable effort,, in conse-
quence of the distance between the first
stomach and the mouth. In March, ge-
nerally, he sheds his horns, which are not
completely renewed till August. It will
live to between thirty and forty years of
age, and was, formerly, amidst the other
vulgar errors of antiquity, supposed capa-
ble of attaining most extraordinary dura-
tion. The stag is supposed to have been
introduced from France into England
where it has latterly been made to give
vay to the fallow deer, an animal more
gentle in its manners, and more valuable
as food. In some parts of Scotland the
stag is yet to be found in its original wild
state.

C. dama, or the fallow deer. This ani-
mal is, in general, much smaller than the
stag ; but in Spain is nearly equally
large : in France and Germany, it is rare-
ly to be found, and it has never been
known to have existed in America : it has
the elegance of the stag, connected with
a much more tractable disposition : it
sheds its horns, which, as in the stag spe-
cies, are peculiar to the male, every year ;
is stated to live to the age of twenty years,
and arrives at its maturity in three : it is
by no means fastidious in its food. Fig. 4.
C. capreolus, or the roe. This is the
smallest of the animals of this class in
Europe, and generally of a reddish-brown
colour : it is graceful, sprightly, and cou-
rageous, particularly cleanly, and de-
lighting in dry and mountainous situa-
tions : it leaves a strong scent behind it,
but possesses such arts of defence, that,
by various doublings, and intermixtures of
past with present emanations from its
body, it frequently baffles the most ex-
perienced dogs, and remains in a state of
security while the full pack passes almost
close by its retreat, distinguishing it nei-
ther by sight nor smell: it differs from
the stag in the constancy of its attach-
ments, and the parents and their young
constitute a family, never associating with
strangers : two fawns are generally pro-
duced by the female at a birth, one of
each sex, which, living together, form a
mutual and invincible attachment. When
a new family is to be nursed, the former
is driven off to provide for itself, but re-
turns again after a certain interval to the

CER

mother, whose former affection is restor-
ed : a final separation speedily takes
place, however, soon after this return,
between the fawns of the season preced-
ing- the last and their dam, and the for-
mer remove to a distance, constituting a
distinct establishment, and rearing an off-
spring of their own. When the female is
about to bring forth, she secludes her-
self in some remote recess of the fo-
rest, from which she returns at the end of
about ten days, with her fawns, just able
slowly and weakly to follow her steps: in
cases of danger, she hides them in a place
deemed by her most secure from the
enemy, and attracts the attention of the
latter from them to herself; happy, by
her own perils, or even destruction, to
effect the security of her offspring. In
winter these animals feed on brambles,
broom, heath, and catkins ; and in spring
they eat the young wood and leaves of
almost every species of trees, and are
said to be so affected, as it were with in-
toxication, by the fermentation of this
food in their stomachs, that they will ap-
proach men and other enemies, whom
they generally shun with extreme care,
without apprehension or suspicion. The
flesh of these animals is excellent, though
after two years of age that of the males is
ill-flavoured and tough. Some roes have
been found perfectly white, and in the
forest of Lucia, in the duchy of Lunen-
burgh, a race of jet black roes is to be
met with, in every other respect but this
marked peculiarity of colour, (which is
also stated to be an invariable distinc-
tion,) resembling the common roe.

Roes may be tamed to a certain degree,
but never so as to be completely familiar-
ized. The share of nai ural wildness which
they ever retain is connected, especially
in males, with much caprice, and even
antipathy to particular individuals, whom
they will assault with their horns, and af-
terwards violently trample on with their
feet. The roe exists now in no part of
Ireland, and, in Great Britain, only in a
few districts of the Highlands.

C. axjp, or spotted axis, is a most beau-
tiful animal, marked with numerous spots :
it is described by Pliny, and is said to have
been sacred to Bacchus among the anci-
ents. Fig. 3.

CERTIFICATION of assize of novel dis-
seisin, a writ granted for the re-examina-
tion or review of a matter passed by as-
size before any justices; as where a man,
appearing by his bailiff to an assize
brought by another, hath lost the day,
and having something more to plead for

himself, as a deed of release, &c. which
the bailiff did not or might not plead for
him, desires a farther examination of the
cause, either before the same justices or
others, and obtaineth letters patent to
that effect.

CERTIORARI, writ of, is an original
writ, issuing out of the Court of Chancery
of the King's Bench, directed, in the
King's name, to the judges or officers of
inferior courts, commanding them to cer-
tify or to return the records of a cause
depending before them, to the end that
the party may have the more sure and
speedy justice before the King, or such
justices as he shall assign to determine
the cause.

A certiorari lies in all judicial proceed-
ings in which a writ of error does not lie ;
and it is a consequence of all inferior ju-
risdictions erected by act of parliament,
to have their proceedings returnable in
the King's Bench.

In particular cases, the court will use
their discretion to grant a certiorari, as,
if the defendant be of good character, or
if the prosecution be malicious, or at-
tended with oppressive circumstances.

The Courts of Chancery and King's
Bench may award a certiorari to remove
the proceeding from any inferior courts,
whether they be of ancient or newly
created jurisdiction, unless the statute or
charter which creates them exempts them
from such jurisdiction.

CESARE, among logicians, one of the
modes of the second figure of syllogisms ;
the minor proposition of which is an uni-
versal affirmative, and the other two uni-
versal negatives : thus,

CE No immoral books ought to be
read :

SA But every obscene book is immo-
ral :

HE Therefore no obscene book ought
to be read.

CESSION, in law, an act by which a
person surrenders and transmits to ano-
ther person, a right which belonged to
himself. Cession is more particularly
used in the civil law for a voluntary sur-
render of a person's effects to his credi-
tors, to avoid imprisonment.

CESSION, in the ecclesiastical law, is
when an ecclesiastical person is created a
bishop, or when a parson of a parish takes
another benefice without dispensation,
or being otherwise qualified. In both
these cases their first benefices become
void by cession, without any resignation ;
and to those livings *hat the person had,
who was created bishop, the King may

CET

CEY

present, for that time, whosoever is patron
of them ; tnd in the other case the patron
may present; but bv dispensation of re-
tainder, a bishop may retain some or all
the preferments he was entitled to, be-
fore he was made bishop.

CBSTRUM, in botany, English bastard
jasmine, a genus of the Pentandna Mono-
gynia class and order. Natural order of
Luridae. Solaneae, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter : corolla funnel-form ; stamens
emitting a toothlet from their middle ;
berry unilocular. There are nine species,
of which C. nocturnum, night smelling
cestrum, is about seven feet high, covered
with a grejish bark, and divides upward
into many slender brandies, which gene-
rally incline to one side ; they are gar-
nished with leaves placed alternately,
nearly four inches long, and one and a
half broad ; the flowers are produced at
the wings of the leaves, in small clusters,
standing upon short peduncles, each
sustaining four or five flowers, of an her-
baceous colour. They appear in August,
but are not succeeded by berries in this
country : those which come from Ame-
rica are small, and are of a dark brown
colour. It is a native of the island of Cuba.
CESTUI, a French word, signifying
he or him, frequently used in our law-
writings. Thus " cestui qui trust," a per-
son who has lands, See. committed to him
for the benefit of another ; and if such
person does not perform his trust, he is
compellable to it in Chancery, " Cestui
qui vie," one for whose life any lands,
&c. are granted. " Cestui qui use," a
person to whose use any one is enfeoff'ed
of lands or tenements. Formerly the
feoffees to uses were deemed owners of
the land, but now the possession is ad-
judged in cestui qui use.

CETE, in natural history, the seventh
order of Mammalia, in the Linnaean sys-
tem of animals, including the four gene-
ra ; Monodon, or narval ; Balaena, whale ;
Pityseter, cachalot ; and Delphinus, dol-
phin. The cetaceous tribe has one or
more spiracles placed on the fore part of
the skull ; no feet ; pectoral fins without
nails, and tail horizontal. The cetaceous
order of animals has nothing peculiar to
fish, except living in the same element,
and being endowed with the same powers
of progressive motion, as those fishes
which are intended to move with consi-
derable velocity. The popular idea of
cetaceous animals being fishes is so strong-
ly impressed on the public mind, that it
can never, perhaps, be entirely removed;
for the critical observations of naturalists

appear (oo abstruse to be generally ex-
amined, and ef consequence to be com-
monly understood. The cetaceous tribes
live in the same element as fishes, and,
partaking somewhat of their external
figure, will ever be considered as apper-
taining to that class of animals by the less
informed portion of mankind.

Cetaceous animals, or, as Dr. Shaw ex-
presses them, " fish formed mammalia,"
have lungs, intestines, and other internal
organs, formed on the same principle as
in quadrupeds ; and, indeed, on strict
comparison, the principal differences that
exist between them will not be found
very considerable ; one of the most ma-
terial seems to consist in their want of
posterior legs, the peculiar structure of
the (ail supplying that defect, this being
extremely strong and tendinous, and di-
vided into two horizontal lobes, but which
has no internal bones. Like quadrupeds,
they have a heart furnished with two auri-
cles, and two ventricles, and their blood
is warm and red : they breathe by their
lungs, and not by means of gills, as in
true fishes. In their amours they agree
with quadrupeds; the female produces
her young alive, which rarely happens
among- fishes, and she suckles them with
her teats, as in the true mammalia. The
structure of their brain, their sexual or-
gans, stomach, and liver, resemble those
of mammiferous animals. Their skin is
smooth, or not covered with scales ; and
their tail is placed in a position the very
reverse of fishes, in being always fiat
and horizontal, instead of vertical. The
cetaceous animals, the cachalot and dol-
phin genera, have the mouth armed with
conic teeth ; the whales with horny laminae
in the upper jaw ; and the narval with
teeth, or tusks of enormous length. They
are neither sanguinary nor ferocious.
Theirstomachs are large, arid divided into
chambers to the number of five, as in the
whale and porpoise, or even seven, as in
the narval. In the last particular they
seem to constitute an intermediate link
between carnivorous and herbivorous ani-
mals, approaching nearly to ruminating
quadrupeds ; but differ, in subsisting on
animal food, as they live chiefly on acti-
niae, medusae, and other zoophytes, on
crustaceous animals, and on small fish.
See MONODOJT, BAL^STA, PHYSKTER, and
DELPHI NUS.

CEYLANITE, in mineralogy, a species
of the flint genus, of a dark indigo-blue,
which passes into a bluish or greenish
black. It recurs sometimes in rolled pieces,
and angular pieces, and sometimes

CEUE

CHA

also crystallized. Specific gravity 3.76 to
].79. 1 1 is found, in sand, with tourmalin
and other fossils.

CHJEROPHYLLUM, in botany, a genus
of the Pentandria Digynia class and order.
Natural order of Umbellatae. Essential
character : invol. reflected, concave ; pe-
tals heart-inflected ; fruit oblong, even.
There are ten species, of which C. bulbp-
sum, tuberous chervil, is about five or six
feet high, with reddish spots, smooth and
even at top, swelling at the joints. Both
umbels of unequal rays, the partial rather
convex; petals white, obcordate, un-
equal ; some florets of the disk abortive.
It is a native of Germany, Austria, Swit-
zerland and Norway ; in hedges and by
wood sides ; flowering in June and July.
C. silvestre, wild cicely or coxv-weed, and
C. temulum, wild chervil, rough cow-
parsley, are both common weeds; the
others are admitted only into botanic gar-
dens, not being in use either for medi-
cine or in the kitchen.

CHJETODON, in natural history, a ge-
nus of fishes of the order Thoracic! : ge-
neric character : head and mouth small ;
teeth close set, flexile, setaceous ; gill
membrane three, four, five, or six rayed ;
body broad, compressed, and generally
faciated ; dorsal and anal fin thick, fleshy,
and scaly at the base. The fishes of this
numerous genus are generally extremely
beautiful, 'their colours remarkably vivid,
and their variegations consisting chiefly
of stripes, lines, bends, or spots; their
body covered with strong scales, which
are finally denticulated at the margin ;
the dorsal and anal fins are remarkably
broad. According to Gmelin there are
about 60 species. Dr. Shaw has enumerat-
ed and described still more. The latter
has divided them iato classes, of which
the first is described as having a single
dorsal fin, and even or rounded tail, or
very slightly inclining to crescent-shaped
in some few species ; among the species
of this class is C. plectorhenchus, or pleat-
nose chzetodon. See Plate III. Pisces,
fig. 1. The species of the second class have
a single dorsal fin, and forked or lunated
tail : those of the third class have two
dorsal fins.

CHAFF, in agriculture, the husky sub-
'stMice of corn, which is separated by
threshing and winnowing. It also some-
times signifies the rind of corn ; thus, bar-
ley that has a thick rind is said to be
thick-chaffed; and it likewise implies
straw, &c. cut small for the purpose of
being given to horses and other cattle,
mixed with corn. This substance, whe-

ther obtained by the dressing of grain or
made from straw and other matters by
cutting, is highly useful in the feeding of
horses and many other animals, as suving
much 01 her more valuable food. Besides
its advantage in the common feeding of
animals, it is of vast utility in the fattening
of different sorts of animals, where much
luxuriant green food is given as a dry
meat ; as without some sort of material
of this nature they never go on well.

CHAIN, a long piece of metal com-
posed of several links or rings, engaged
the one in the other. They are imde of
divers metals, some round, some flat,
others square, some single, some double.
A gold chain is one of the badges of the
dignity of the Lord Mayor of London, and
remains to the person after his being
divested of that office, as a mark that he
has passed the chair. It is also the badge
of office of the sheriff', but only while in
office.

CHA ix is also a string of gold, silver,
or steel wire, wrought like a tissue, which
serves to hang watches, tweezer-cases,
and other valuable toys upon. The inven-
tion of these pieces of workmanship was
derived originally from England, whence
foreigners give them the name of chains
of England.

In making these chains,a part of the wire
is folded into little links of an oval form,
the longest diameter about three lines,
the shortest one. These, after they have
been exactly soldered, are again folded
into two, and then bound together and
interwoven by means of several other lit-
tle threads of the same thickness, some of
which passing from one end to the other,
imitate the warp of a stuff, and the others,
which pass transversely, the woof; there
are at least four thousand little links, in a
chain of four pendants, so equally, and at
the same time so firmly, connected, that
the eye takes the whole to consist of one
piece.

CHAIX, in surveying, a measure ot
length, made of a certain number of links
of iron-wive, serving to take the distance
between two or more places. Gunter's
chain is of 100 such links, each measur-
ing? _^2_ inches, and consequently equal
to 66 feet, or four poles. When you are
to measure any line by this chain, you
need have a guard to no other denomina-
tion than chains and links, which are to
be set down with a full point between
them. Thus, for instance, if the side of
a close is found to be 10 chains 14 links,
it must be set down thus, 10.14. But if
the links be under 10, a cypher must be

CHA

CMA

prefixed ; thus 10 chains 7 links must be
set clown 10.07.

Then if the field be a square or paral-
lelogram, if you multiply the length ex-
pressed in chains and links, by the breadth
expressed in the same manner, and cut
off five figures from the product, those
towards the left hand will be acres ; then
multiply the separated figures by four,
cutting off the same number of figures, and
you will have the roods or quarters of an
acre ; and lastly multiply the remaining
figures by 40, cutting off" five as before,
and you will have the square perches.
See SCHVEYIWG.

CHAINS, in a ship, those irons to which
the shrouds of the masts are" made fast to
the chain walls.

CHAIN -walls, in a ship, the broad tim-
bers which are made jetting out of her
sides, to which the shrouds are fastened
and spread out, the better to secure the
masts.

CHAIN 'shot, two bullets with a chain
between them. They are used at sea to
shoot down yards or masts, and to cut
the shrouds or rigging of a ship.

CHAIN pump. See PUMP.

CHALCEDONY, in mineralogy, a spe-
cies of the flint genus ; of which there are,
according to Werner, two subspecies, viz.
the common chalcedony and the carne-
lian: the colour of the former is grey in
all its shades. It is commonly semi-trans-
parent, harder than flint, brittle, diffi-
cultly frangible ; and the specific gravity,
according to Kirwan, is about 2.6. Infu-
sible before the blow-pipe. It is found
mostly in balls, in amygdaloid, also in
angular pieces and veins, in porphyry and
amygdaloid. The cubic variety occurs
in Transylvania, and the other varieties
in Iceland, the Feroe Islands, Silecia, Sax-
ony, Siberia, Cornwall, Scotland, &c. It
is susceptible of a fine polish, and is em-
ployed as an article of jewelry. It de-
rives its name from Chulcedon, in Asia,
where it was first found. Onyx is con-
sidered as the most valuable variety of
this species, and, on account of its be-
ing capable of receiving a high polish,
is very much prized. It is principally
cut in bas relief work, and the finest
specimens £or that purpose are brought
from the East Indies. The dendritic
variety is named mocha stone, being
brought, originally, as was supposed,
from Mocha, on the Red Sea; but it is
now generally understood that the word
mooda is a corruption from the German
word mocks, which signifies moss; and

it is affirmed that no stone of the kind is
found near Mocha.

The principal colour of the carnelian is
blood red, of all degrees of intensity ;
from this it passes into milk-white, and
also into a kind of yellow. Semi-transpa-
rent ; and in many other of its characters
it agrees with the common chalcedony.
It is found accompanying agate, and, in
general, has the same geognostic situa-
tion as chalcedony. The fine oriental va-
rieties occur in rolled pieces. The
most beautiful carnelian is brought from
Arabia and liindostan ; it is also found in
different parts of Europe, and is used
for seals, bracelets, crosses, and other or-
naments.

CHALCIS, in natural history, a genus
of insects of the order Hymenoptera :
mouth with a horny compressed jaw ;
feelers four, equal ; antennae short, cylin-
drical, fusiform ; the first joint a little
thicker; thorax gibbous, lengthened be-
hind in the place of a scutel ; abdomen
rounded and slightly petiolate. There
are eleven species

CHALDRON, a dry English measure,
consisting of thirty-six bushels, heaped
up according to the sealed bushel kept
at Guildhall, London ; but on ship-board,
twenty-one chaldrons of coals are allowed
to the score.

CHALK, in natural history, a species of
CALK, which see.

Chalk, where it is found at all, is the
preponderating substance, and may there-
fore be considered as characterizing a
peculiar species of mineral formation. It
is perhaps the most recent of all the va-
rieties of calcareous carbonates ; it occurs
in strata for the most part nearly horizon-
tal, alternating with thin layers of flint
nodules, and with the same irregularity
dispersed through its substance ; it con-
tains in abundance the relics of marine
organized bodies, such as echinites,
glossopetrx, pectinites, &.c. and also not
unfrequently the hard parts of amphibi-
ous and land animals, as the heads and
vertebrae of crocodiles, and teeth of ele-
phants. Chalk hills never rise to a high-
er elevation than three or four hundred
feet, and are at once distinguishable by
the smooth regularity of their outline,
and their remarkable tendency to form
cup-shaped concavities. Ridges of chalk,
in England at least, are always bordered
by parallel ranges of sand or sand stone,
beneath, and alternating with which are
situated the beds of fullers-earth. Chalk
hills are also singularly characterized by
their drvness and their verdure : the most

CHA

porous sand-stone is scarcely so deficient
in springs of water, and yet, except upon
akqost perpendicular descents, the white
surface of the chalk is uniformly covered
with fine turf or wood.

The chalk hills in England occupy a
greater extent than in any other country ;
they run in a direction nearly from east
to west, parallel to each other, and sepa-
rated by ranges of sand-stone, and low
tracts of gravel and clay. The most north-
ern and loftiest range of chalk com-
mences at the promontory of Flambo-
rough-head, in Yorkshire, and proceeds
westward for nearly twenty miles. In the
county of Lincoln are some fragments of
a ridge near Grantham. Two ridges tra-
verse the midland countries, and reach as
far west as the borders of Oxfordshire :
these ridges are no where so conspicuous
as in the county of Bedford, where they
approach near to each other, being only
separated by the Woburn and Ampthill
range of sand-stone. The country south
«f the Thames also contains two ridges,
the one commencing at the North and
South Foreland, passing through the
north of Kent, the middle of Surry, and
the north of Hampshire, and including
the North Downs of Banstead, Epsom,
Sec. : the other, commencing near Mast-
ings and at the lofty promontory of
Beachy-head, passes through Sussex and
the south of Hampshire, into Dorsetshire,
including the South Downs. The north
part of Frajice also abounds in chalk:
it is besides met with in some of the
Danish islands in the Baltic, and in Po-
land.

The uses of chalk are very extensive :
the more compact kinds are used as
building stone, and are burnt to lime
(nearly all the buildings in London being
cemented with chalk-mortar :) it is also
largely employed in the polishing of me-
tals and glass]! in constructing moulds to
cast metal in, by carpenters and others as
a material to mark with, and by starch-
makers and chemists to dry precipitates
on, for which it is peculiarly qualified, on
account of the remarkable facility with
which it absorbs water.

CHALK stones. It is well known that
concretions occasionally make their ap-
pearance in joints long subject to gout.
These concretions, from their colour and
softness, have received the name of
chalk-stones. They are usually small,
though they have been observed of the
size of an egg-. It had long been the
opinion of physicians, that these concre-
tions were similar to the urinary caknli.
See CALCULT.

Of course, after the discovery of uric
acid by Scheele, it was usual to consider
the gouty chalk-stones as collections of
that acid. They were subjected to »
chemical analysis by Dr. Wollaston in
1797, who found them composed of uric
acid and soda. Gouty concretions are
soft and friable. Cold water has little ef-
fect upon them ; but boiling water dis-
solves a small portion. If an acid be add-
ed to this solution, small crystals of uric
acid are deposited on the sides of the
vessel. These concretions are complete-
ly soluble in potash, when the action of
the alkaline solution is assisted by heat.
When treated with diluted sulphuric or
with muriatic acid, the soda is separated ;
but the uric acid remains, and may be se-
parated by filtration. The liquid, when
evaporated, yields crystals of sulphate or
muriate of soda, according to the acid
employed. The residuum possesses al^
the characters of uric acid.

When uric acid, soda, and a little warm
water, are triturated together, a mass is
formed, which, after the surplus of soda
is washed off, possesses the chemical pro-
perties of gouty concretions.

CHALLENGE, in law, is an exception
made to jurors, who are returned to a
person on a trial.

This challenge is made either to the
array, or to the polls : to the array, when
exception is taken to the whole number1
of jurors impannelled ; and to the pol|s,
when an exception is made to one OR
more of the jury as not indifferent.

Challenge to the jurors is likewise di-
vided into challenge principal or pe-
remptory, and challenge for cause ; that
is, upon cause or reason alledged. Chal-
lenge principal, is what the law allows
without any cause alledged, or further ex-
amination : as, a prisoner arraigned at the
bar for felony may challenge peremptori-
ly the number allowed him by law, be-
ing twent)', one after another, alleging
no further cause than his own dislike :
and the jurors, so challenged, shall be
put off, and new ones taken in their
places.

In cases of treason, the number of thir-
ty-five jurors may be peremptorily dial
lenged, without shewing any cause : and
more, both in treason and felony, may be
challenged, shewing cause.

If those who prosecute for the king,
challenge a juror, they- are to assign the
cause ; and if the cause alleged be not a
good one, the inquest shall be taken.
When the king is party, if the other side
challenge any juror above the number
allowed, he ought to show cause of his

€HA

CHA

challenge immediately, while the jury is
full, and before they are sworn. This
was supposed to be law with regard to
challenges made for the crown, but in
the memorable state trials of 1794, the
crown lawyers challenged without shew-
ing cause, declaring that they were not
bound to shew reason till the whole pan-
nel was gone through, and then only in
case that a sufficient number of jurors
were not left. This was the case, and
the consequence was, that the persons
whom they hud challenged were then
taken, against whom it was ascertained
there was no1 cause of challenge whatever.
Challenge to the array is in respect of
the partiality or default of the sheriff,
coroner, or other officer, that made the
return ; and it is then twofold. First,
principal challenge to the array, which, if
it be made good, it is a sufficient cause of
exception, without leaving any thing to
the judgment of the triers ; as, if the
sheriff be of kindred to either party, or if
any of the jurors be returned at the no-
mination of either of the parties. Second-
ly, challenged to the array for favour,
which being no principal challenge, must
be left to the discretion and conscience of
the triers. As where either of the par-
lies suspect that the juror is inclined to
favour the ' opposite party. Principal
challenge to the polls, is where cause is
shewn, which, if found true, stands suffi-
cient of itself, without leaving any thing
to the triers ; as, if the juror be under
the age of 21, it is a true cause of chal-
lenge.

CHALYBEATE. See MINERAL WA-
TERS.

CHAMA, in natural history, a genus
of Verities Testacea. Animal a tethys :
shell bivalve, rather coarse ; hinge with
a callous gibbosity, obliquely inserted in
an oblique hollow ; anterior slope closed :
about 25 fpecies, of which we shall no-
tice only the C. gigas : shell plaited, with
arched scales: posterior slope gaping,
with crenulate margins. It inhabits the
Indian ocean,' and is sometimes so small
as not to measure an inch in length ;
sometimes far exceeds all other testa-
ceous productions, having been found of
the weight of 532 pounds, and the fish or
inhabitant so large as to furnish 120 men
with food, and strong enough to cut
asunder a cable and lop off' men's hands;
shell lucid, white, sometimes rosy, varied
with yellow, red, and white : po.iterior
aperture ovate, with a tumid crenate cir-
cumference ; margin toothed ; hinge arm-
ed with a tooth besides the callus.

CHAMjfiLEOX, in botany, a genus of

the Syngenesia Segregata class and or-
der. Calyx six or eight flowered, imbri-
cate, many-leaved ; calycle one-flower-
ed, many-leaved ; florets tubular, all
hermaphrodite ; receptacle naked ; seeds
covered with a calycle growing to them ;
one species, a native of the South of Eu-
rope.

CHAMJEROPS, in botany, dwarf palm,
or palmetto. Essential character : herma-
phrodite; calyx three-parted; corolla
three petalled ; stamina six ; pistils three ;
drupes three, one-seeded : males, dioe-
cous, as in the hermaphrodite. There
are three species, of which C. humilis,
dwarf fan palm, never rises with an up-
right stem ; the foot stalks of the leaves
rise immediately from the head of the
root, anil are armed on each side with
strong spuies ; they are flat on their
upper surface, and convex on their un-
der side : from between the leaves comes
out the spadix or club, which sustains the
flowers ; this is covered with a thin spathe
or hood, which falls off' when the bunch-
es open and divide. It grows naturally
in Italy, Sicily, and Spain, particularly in
Andalusia, where, in the sandy land, the
roots spread and propagate so fast, as to
cover the ground in the same manner as
fern in England.

CHAMBERLAIN, an officer charged
with the management and direction of a
chamber.

There are almost as many kinds of
chamberlains as chambers, the principal
of which are as follow :

CHAMBEIILAIX, Lord, of Great Britain,
the sixth great officer of the crown ; to
whom belongs livery and lodging in the
king's court ; and there are certian fees
due to him from each archbishop or
bishop, when they perform their homage
to the king : and from all peers at their
creation, on doing their homage. At the
coronation of every king, he is to have
forty ells of crimson velvet for his own
robes. This officer, on the coronation
clay, is to bring the king his shirt, coif,
and, wearing clothes; and after the king-
is dressed, he claims his bed, and all the
furniture of his chamber, for his fees: he
also carries, at the coronation, the coif,
gloves, anil linen, to be used by the king
on that occasion ; also the sword and
scabbard, the gold to be offered by the
king, and the robes royal and crown : he
dresses and undresses the king on that
day, waits on him before and after din-
ner, &c. To this officer belongs the care
of providing all things in the House of
Lords, in the time of the Parliament : to
him also belongs the government of the

CHA

palace of Westminster : he disposes like-
wise of the sword of state, to be car-
ried before the king, to what lord he
pleases.

The office of Lord Great Chamberlain
of England is hereditary ; and where a
person dies siezed in fee of this office,
leaving two sisters, the office belongs to
b,oth, and they may execute it by deputy,
but such deputy must be approved of
by the king, and must not be of a degree
inferior to a knight. To the Lord Cham-
berlain the keys of Westminster Hall,
and the Court of Requests, are delivered
upon all solemn occasions. He goes on
the right hand of the sword, next the
king's person. The Gentleman Usher of
the Black Rod, Yeoman Usher, &c. are
under his authority.

CHAMBERLAIN, Lord of the Household,
an officer who has the oversight and di-
rection of all the- officers belonging to
the king's chambers, except the precinct
of the king's bed-chamber.

He has the oversight of the officers of
the wardrobe at all his Majesty's houses,
and of the removing wardrobes, or of
beds, tents, revels, music, comedians,
hunting, messengers, &c. retained in the
king's service. He moreover has the
oversight and direction of the Serjeants
at arms, of all physicians, apothecaries,
surgeons, barbers, the king's chaplains,
&c. and administers the oath to all offi-
cers above stairs.

CHAMBERLAIN of London, keeps the
city money, which is laid up in the cham-
ber of London : he also presides over
the affairs of masters and apprentices,
and makes free of the city, &c. His of-
fice lasts only a year, but the custom
usually obtains to re-choose the same
person, unless charged with any misde-
meanor in his office.

CHAMBERS, (EPHRAIM,) author of
the dictionary of sciences, called the
" Cyclopaedia." He was born at Milton,
in the county of Westmoreland, where
he received the common education for
qualifying a youth for trade and com-
merce. When he became of a proper
age, he was put apprentice to Mr. Se-
nex, the globe-maker, a business which
is connected with literature, especial-
ly with geography and astronomy. It
was during Mr. Chamber's residence
with this skilful artist, that he acquired
that taste for literature which accompa-
nied him through life, and directed all
his pursuits. It was even at this time
that he formed the design of his grand
\vork, the Cyclopaedia ; some of the first
articles of which were written behind

VOL. Ill,

the counter. To have leisure to pursue
this work, he quitted Mr. Senex, and
took chambers at Grey's Inn, where he
chiefly resided during the rest of his
life. The first edition of the Cyclopaedia,
which was the result of many years in-
tense application, appeared in 1728, in 2
vols. folio. The reputation that Mr.
Chambers acquired by the execution of
this work procured him the honour
of being elected F. R. S. November 6,
17£9. In less than ten years time, a
second edition became necessary ; which
accordingly was printed, with correc-
tions and additions, in 1738 : and this was
followed by a third edition the very next
year.

Mr. Chambers's close and unremitting
attention to his studies at length impair-
ed his health, and obliged him occasion-
ally to take a country lodging, but with-
out much benefit ; he afterwards visited
the south of France, but still with little
effect ; he therefore returned to England,
where he soon after died, at Islington,
May 15, 1740, and was buried at Westmin-
ster Abbey.

After the author's death, two more
editions of his Cyclopaedia were publish-
ed. The proprietors afterwards procured
a supplement to be compiled, by Mr.
Scott and Dr. Hill, but chiefly by the lat-
ter, which extended to two volumes
more ; and the whole has since been re-
duced into one alphabet, in four volumes,
by Dr. Rees, forming a very valuable
body of the sciences.

A new edition of the same work, or
rather a new work under the title of the
" New Cyclopaedia," is now publishing
by the same learned Editor. This work,
of which Dr. Rees has published already
nine volumes, will probably extend to
thirty volumes quarto. It will, when com-
plete, be unquestionably the most com-
prehensive body of science ever present-
ed to the world.

CHAMELEON. See LACERTA.

CHAMPION, a person who under-
takes a combat in the place or quarrel
of another ; and sometimes the word
is used for him who fights in his own
cause.

It appears that champions, in the just
sense of the word, were persons who
fought instead of those, that, by custom,
were obliged to accept the duel, but had
a just excuse for dispensing with it, as
being too old, infirm, or being ecclesias-
tics, and the like. Such causes as could
not be decided by the course of common
law were often tried by single combat ;
and he who had the good fortune to con-

CHA

quer was always reputed to have justice
on his side. Champions, who fought for
interest only, were held infamous: these
hired themselves to the nobility, to fight
for them in case of need, and did homage
for their pension.

When two champions were chosen to
maintain a cause, it was always required
that there should be a decree of the
judge to authorize the combat : when the
judge had pronounced sentence, the ac-
cused threw a gage or pledge, originally
a glove or gauntlet, which being taken up
by the accuser, they were both taken in-
to safe custody, till the day of battle ap-
pointed by the judge.

Before the champions took the field,
their heads were shaved to a kind of
crown or round, which was left at the
top : then they made an oath, that they
believed the person who retained them
to be in the right, &c. They always
engaged on foot, and with no other
weapon than a club and a shield, which
weapons were blessed in the field by the
priest, with a world of ceremonies ; and
they always made an offering to the
church, that God might assist them in
the battle.

The action began with railing, and giv-
ing each other ill language; and at the
sound of a trumpet, they went to blows.
After the number of blows or encoun-
ters expressed in the cartel, the judges
of the combat threw a rod into the air,
to advertise the champions that the com-
bat was ended. If it lasted till night, or
ended with equal advantage on both
sides, the accused was reputed the vic-
tor. If the conquered champion fought in
the cause of a woman, and it was a capital
offence, the woman was burnt, and the
champion hanged. If it was the cham-
pion of a man, and the crime capital, the
vanquished was immediately disarmed,
led out of the field, and hanged, together
with the party whose cause he maintain-
ed. If the crime was not capital, he not
only made satisfaction, but had his right
hand cut off': the accused was close
confined in prison, till the battle was
over.

CHAMPION of the king, a person whose
office it is, at the coronations of our kings,
to ride armed into Westminster-hall,
while the king is at dinner there, and, by
the proclamation of a herald, make chal-
lenge to this effect, viz. "That if any man
shall deny the king's title to the crown,
he is there ready to defend it in single
combat, &c.". Which done, the king
drinks to him, and sends him a gilt cup,
with a corer, full of wine, which the

champion drinks, and has the cup for his
fee. This office is hereditary.

CHANCE, in a general sense, a terui
applied to events not necessarily produc-
ed as the natural effects of any proper
foreknown cause. We certainly mean no
more in saying that a thing happened by
chance, than that its cause is unknown to
us: for chance itself is no natural agent
or cause ; it is incapable of producing
any effect, and is no more than a crea-
ture of man's own making ; for the things
done in the corporeal world are really
done by the parts of the universal matter,
acting and suffering, according to the
laws of motion established by the author
of nature.

Chance is also confounded with fate
and destiny.

CHANCES, doctrine of, in mixed mathe-
matics, a subject of great importance, es-
pecially as applied to the doctrine of
life annuities, assurance, &c. in a great
commercial country like this. The
writers on this branch of science have
been comparatively few. In our own
language the principal treatises are, a
large quarto by De Moivre, and a very
small work by the celebrated Mr. Tho
mas Simpson, in which, however, there
are some problems never before attempt-
ed, or, at least, never before communicat-
ed to the public. In the year 1753, Mr.
Dodson rendered this subject more acces-
sible to persons not far advanced in ana-
lytical'studies, by publishing, in his se-
cond volume of the " Mathematical Re-
pository," a number of questions, with
their several solutions, with an express
reference to the doctrine of life annui-
ties. We shall give his first problem.

Suppose a round piece of metal, equal-
ly formed, having two opposite faces,
one white, the other black, be thrown
up, in order to see which of those faces
will be uppermost after the metal has
fallen to the ground, when, if the white
face appears uppermost, a person is to
be entitled to 51. it is required to deter-
mine, before the event, what chance or
probability that person has of receiving
the 5/. and what sum he may expect
should be paid to him in consideration of
his resigning his chance to another.

Solution. Since there is nothing in the
form of the metal that can incline it to
shew one face rather than the other, and
since it must shew one, it will follow, that
there is an equal chance for the appear-
ance of either face, or there is one chance
out of two for the appearance of the
white face, and consequently the proba-
bility of it may be expressed by the frac-

CHANCES.

tion -; if, therefore, any other person

should be willing to purchase his chance,
he must give for it the half of 51. or "21.
10s. This is one of the most simple ca-
ses : before, however, we proceed, it
may be proper to give some definitions
introductory to the doctrine.

Def. 1. The probability of an event is
the ratio of the chance for its happening
to all the chances for its happening or
failing: thus, if out of six chances for its
happening or failing, there were only two
chances for its happening, the probabili-
ty in favour of such an event would be in
the ratio of two to six; that is, it would be
a fourth proportional to 6, 2, and 1, or JL.
For the same reason, as there are four
chances for its failing, the probability that
the event will not happen will be in the
ratio of 4 to 6, or, in other words, it will
be a fourth proportional to 6, 4, and 1,
or I. Hence, if the fractions expressing
the prbabilities of an event's both hap-
pening or failing be added together, they
will always be found equal to unity. For
let a be the number of chances for the
event's happening, and b the number of
chances for its failing, the prob'ability in

the first case being-— — » and in the se-
cond case — ; — ' their sum will be =
a-\-b

—7 = 1. Having therefore determin-
ed the probability of any event's either
happening or failing, the probability of
the contrary will always be obtained by
subtracting the fraction expressing such
probability from unity.

Def. '2. The expectation of an event
is the present value of any sum or thing,
which depends either on the happening
or on the failing of such an event. Thus,
if the receipt of one guinea were to de-
pend on the throwing of any particular
face on a die, the expectation of the per-
son entitled to receive it would be worth
3s. 6</.; for since there are six faces on a
die, and only one of them can be thrown
to entitle the person to receive his mo-
ney, the probability that such a face will
be thrown being |. (according to Def. 1.)
it follows, that the value of his interest
before the trial is made, or, which is the
same thing, that his expectation is equal
to one-sixth of a guinea, or 3s. 6d. Were
his receiving the money to depend on his
throwing either of two faces, his expecta-
tion would be equal to two-sixths of a
guinea, or 7s. And, in general, supposing

the present value of the money or thing
to be received to be A, the probability of
the event's happening to be denoted by
a, and of its failing by b, the expectation

will be either expressed by- — ' or by

, according as it depends either on

the event's happening, or on its failing.

Def. 3. Events are independent, when
the happening of any one of them does
neither increase nor lessen the probabi-
lity of the rest. Thus, if a person un-
dertook with a single die to throw an ace
at two successive trials, it is obvious
(however his expectation may be effect-
ed) that the probability of his' throwing
an ace in the one is neither increased nor
lessened by the result of the other trial.

Tlieor. The probability that two subse-
quent events will both happen, is equal to
the product of the probabilities of the
happening of those events considered se-
parately.

Suppose the chances for the happening
and failing of the first event to be denot-
ed by b, and those for its happening only
to be denoted by a. Suppose, in like
manner, the chances for the second
event's happening and failing to be de-
noted by d, and those for its happening
only by c ; then will the probability of the
happening of each of those events, sepa-
rately considered, be (according to Def.

1) —and- respectively. Since it is ne-

b a

cessary that the first event should happen
before any thing can be determined in
regard to the second, it is evident that
the expectation on the latter must be
lessened in proportion to the improbabi-
lity of the former. Were it certain that
the first event would happen, in other

words, were a = b, or - = 1, the expec-
tation on the second event would be =

-. But if a is less than b, and the ex-
d

pectation on the second event- is restrain-
ed to the contingency of its having hap-
pened the first time, that expectation will
be so much less than it was on the former

supposition as - is less than unity.

Hence we have 1 : — :: C- : — , for the
c d bd

true expectation in this case.

Cor. By the same method of reasoning
it will appear, that the probability of the
happening of any number of subsequent
events is equal to the "product of the

CHANCES.

probabilities of those events separately
considered," and therefore, if a always
denote the probability of its happening,
and b the probability of its happening and

the

fraction — will express the
bn

failing1,

probability of its happening n times suc-
cessively," and (by Def. 1) the fraction

~~ " will express the probability of its

bn
failing n times successively.

Rern. It should be observed, that in
some instances the probability of each
subsequent event necessarily differs from
that which preceded it, while in others it
continues invariably the same through
any munb'er of trials. In the one case
the probabilities are expressed, as in the
theorem, by fractions, whose numerators
and denominators continually vary; in
the other they are expressed, as in the
corollary, by one and the same inva-
riable fraction. But this perhaps will
be better understood by the following
examples.

1. Suppose that out of a heap of coun-
ters, of which one part of them are white
and the other red, a person were twice
successively to take out one of them, and
that it were required to determine the
probability that these should be red coun-
ters. If the number of the white be 6,
and the number of the red be four, it is evi-
dent, from what has already been shown,
that the probability of taking out a red
one the first time will be _*. : but the
probability of taking it out the 2d time
will be different ; for since one counter
has been taken out, the-e are now only
nine remaining; and since, .in order to
the 2d trial, it is necessary that the coun-
ter taken out should have been a red
one, the number of those red ones must
have been reduced to 3. Consequently,
the chance of drawing out a red coun-
ter the 2d time will be 3, and the pro-
bability of drawing it out the first and

4x3
2d time will (by this theorem) be 1(J

2. Suppose next, that with a single die
a person undertook to throw an ace
twice successively : in this case the pro-
bability of throwing it the first does not
in the least alter his chance of throwing it
the second time, as the number of faces
on the die is the same at both trials. The
probability, therefore, in each will be ex-
pressed by the same fraction, so that the
probability, before any trial is made, will,

by the preceding corollary, be Jx \— £-g.
On these conclusions depend all the com-
putations, however complicated and labo-
rious, in the doctrine of chances. But this,
perhaps, will be more clearly exemplifi-
ed in the two following problems, which
will serve to explain the principles on
which every other investigation is found-
ed on this subject.

Prob. 1. To determine the probability
that an event happens a given number of
times, and no more, in a given number of
trials.

Sol 1. Let the probability be required
of its happening only once in two trials,
and let the ratio of its happening to that
of its failing be as a to b. Then, since the
event can take place only by it happen-
ing the first, and failing the second time,

the probability of which is —jrfc X

b ab

or by its failing the

first and happening the second time, the

probability of which isr^=^ , the sum of
a -f- b\

these two fractions, or will be

the probability required.

2. Let the probability be required of
its happening only twice in three trials.
In this case, the event, if it happens, must
take place in either of three different
ways : 1st, by its happening the first two,
and failing the third time, the probabili-
ty of which is ; 2dly, by its

failing the first, and happening the other
two times, the probability of which is

-a(l • : or, 3dly, by its happening the

a -r li\}

first and third, and failing the second

time, the probability of which is -==s ,
The sum of these fractions, therefore, or

•y will be the required probabili-
a -f- &Y

ty. By the same method of reasoning,
the probability of its happening only
once in three trials, or, which is the
same thing, of its failing twice in three

* • i i r i i 3 b da
trials, may be found equal to - >.

3. Let the probability of the event's
happening only once in four trials be re-
quired. In this case it must either hap-
pen the first and fail in the three suc-
ceeding trials ; or happen the second and

CHANCES.

fail in the first, third, and fourth trials ;
or happen the third, and fail in the first,
second, and fourth trials ; or happen the
fourth, and fail in the first, second, and
third trials. The probability of each of

these being ^L,, the required proba-

n n ^ n 2

tion, are =s — 'X — 3 — X -- - — continued

-i- -o O

to J terms ; the general rule therefore
ad foil— d

-n multiplied into n X

will be

;^— 4; and for the same rea-

son, the probability of its happening1 three
times and failing onlv once in four trials

will be i|*
a-f ft)

4. Let the probability be required of
its happening twice and failing twice in
four trials : here the event may be deter-
mined in either of six different ways : 1st,
by its happening the first and second, and
failing in the third and fourth trials; 2dly.
by its happening the first and third, and
failing the second and fourth trials; odly,
by its happening the first and fourth, and
failing the second and third trials ; 4thly,
by its happening the second and third,
and failing the first and fourth trials;
5thly, by its happening the second and
fourth, and failing the first and third
trials; or, 6thly, by its happening the
third and fourth, and failing the first and
second trials. Each of these probabili-

ties being expressed by -4, it follows
a + 6'

that the sum of them, or _"

press the probability required.

By proceeding in the same manner,
the probability in any other case may be
determined. "But if the number of trials
be very great, these operations will be-
come exceedingly complicated, and there-
fore recourse must be had to a more ge-
neral method of solution.

Supposing n to be the whole number of
trials, and dthe number of times in which
the event is to take place, the probability
of the event's happening d times succes-
sively, and 'failing the remaining nd times,

.„ . ad n—d _

will be^ -.-d _. n—d — - _

But as there is the same probability of its
happening any other d assigned trials aod
failing in the rest, it is evident that this
probability ought to be repeated as often
as d things can be combined in n things,
which, by the known rules of combina-

^ ^ .— continued to .d

234

terms.

Er. Supposing a person with six dice
undertakes to throw two aces, and no
more ; or, which is the same thing, that
he undertakes with one die to throw an
ace twice, and no more, in six trials ; it is
required to determine the probability of
his succeeding', a being in this case = 1,
6= 5, n — 6, and d = 2, the above expres-

sions will become

— , multiplied into

6 x-;

5 625 X 15

- very nearly.

2 46656
Hence, since there is only one chance for
his succeeding, while there are four for
his failing, the odds against him will be
as four to one.

Prob. 2. To determine the probability
that an event happens a given number of
times in a given number of trials, sup-
posing, as in the former problem, the
probability of its happening each time to
that of its failing to be in the ratio of a
to b.

Sol. It will be observed that this pro-
blem materially differs from the preced-
ing, in as much as the event in that pro-
blem was restrained, so that it should
happen neither more or less often than a
given number of times, while in this pro-
blem the event is determined equally fa-
vourable by its happening either as often
or oftener than a given number of times,
so that in the present case there is no
further restriction than that it should not
fall short of that number.

1. Let the probability be required of an
event happening once at least in two trials.
If it happens the first and fails the second
time, or fails the first and happens the
second time, or happens both times, the
event will have equally succeeded. The

probability in the first case is - — 1} the

probability in the second is ^-— ; ;,andthe
a-{-b\

probability in the third is^=- ; hence the

CHANCES.

probability required will be = - --- -

2. Let the probability be required of
its happening- once in three times. Pro-
vided it has happened once at least in the
first two trials, the event will have equally
succeeded, whether it happens or fails in

the third trial, and therefore i --- ^ will
a-f-6'

represent the probability in this case. But
it may have failed in the first two and hap-
pened in the third trial, the probability of

which is - ^ ; adding this to the preced-
3

found. Let it be supposed to have happen-
ed only once in three times, the probability
of which, by the preceding problem, in

° ; then will the probability of its hap-

pening the fourth, after having happened

once in the three preceding, be *,

q + 6)
and therefore the whole probability will be

q3+3 a1 6 3 a1 b\ _

By proceeding in the same manner, it may
be found that the probability of an event's
happening twice at least in five trials, will

ingfractionwehave

- -

a+6r

babm

required. In like manner the proba-
bility of its happening once at least in

4 a 63

1-f-10 «3 b-

And if

four trials will be =

a 63 q*+6q36+6

the probability of the event's happening
thrice in 4, 5, 6, &c. trials be required,
they may, by pursuing the same steps, be

the probability of its happening once at

a+6" — bn
least in n times will be = — - -•— In

other words, since the event must happen
once at least, unless it fails every time, the
probabilityrequired(by Def. l)will always
be expressed by the difference between

re.

spectively. Hence it follows, that if the
binomial a -\- £\ be raised to rath power,
the probability of an event's happening at
least d times in n trials will be =

n—i. _

F" a "— 2 62 (n ^_ i — </)

3. Let the probability be required of an
event's happening twice at least in three
trials. In this case it will succeed, if it hap-
pens the first and second, and fails the third
time, if it happens the first and third, and
fails the second time, if it happens the
second and third, and fails the first time,
or if it happens each time successively.

The first three probabilities are - r and

the fourth is

q + 6',
bility required will be

; therefore the proba-
Ifthe

event is to happen twice at least in four
times, the probability of its happening dur-
ing the first three times has been already

that is, the series in the numerator must
be continued till the index of a becomes
equaltoJ.

Cor. From this solution it appears that
the series.

n—i
bn _}- n6n-lq-f ^."r 6n-2a2 to r/ terms,

will express the probability of the event's
not happening so often as d times in n
trials.

Ex. Supposing a person with six dice
undertakes to throw two aces or more
in the first trial, what is the probability
of his succeeding ? In this case q, 6, n,
and d, being respectively equal to 1, 5,
6, and 2, the above expression will be-
come =.

1 + 30+15x25+20x125+15x625
66

CHA

Hence the odds against his

succeeding will be as 34375 to 12281, or
nearly as three to one.

We have already observed, that the
doctrine of chances is particularly appli-
cable to the business of life annuities and
assurance. This depends on the chance
of life in all its stages, which is found by
the bills of mortality in different places.
These bills exhibit how many persons up-
on an average out of a certain number
born are left at the end of each year, to
the extremity of life. From such tables
the probability of the continuance of a
life of any proposed age is known.

Example. To find the probability that
an individual of a given age will live one
year. Let A be the number in the tables
of the given age, B the number left at the

end of the year; then- is the probability

that the individual will live one year; and
A— R
— - — the probability that he will die in

that time. In Dr. H alley's tables, out of
586 at the age of 22, 579 arrive at the age
of 23 ; hence the probability that an indi-

579
vidual aged 22 will live one year is -r^, or

5oD

^nearly ; and~5gg or g4nearly is the pro"
bability that he will die in that time. See
MORTALITY, bills of, &c.

Those who would enter more at large
into this subject may be referred to the
works already mentioned, or to the arti-
cle CHANCES in the new Cyclopaedia of Dr.
Rees, a work that will be found in every
library of general literature, and in which
this subject is treated with great ability.
Though we shall under the article GAM-
IXG refer again to the doctrine of chances,
it may not be amiss to mention a deduc-
tion or two, drawn by the writer of the
article just referred to, as the necessary
consequences of mathematical reasoning.
The first is : suppose a lottery consist-
ing of 25,000 tickets, of which 20 are to
be prizes of 1000/. and upwards ; a per-
son, to have an equal chance of one of
those prizes, must purchase about 870
tickets, which at 20/. each is equal to

Again : suppose there are three prizes
of 20,000/. and three of 10,000/. and a
person out of 25,000 tickets has purchased
3000 of them to his own share, in hopes
of gaining one of each of these capital
prizes ; still the chances against such an

expectation will be nearly twelve to one.
See GAMIXG.

CHAXCE medley, in law, is the acci-
dental killing of a man not altogether
without the killer's fault, though without
any evil intention ; and is where one is
doing a lawful act, and a person is killed
thereby; for, if the act be unlawful, it is
felony. The difference betwixt chance-
medley and manslaughter is this : if a
person cast a stone, which happens to hit
one, and he dies ; or if a workman, in
throwing down rubbish from a house,
after warning to take care, kill a person,
it is chance-medley, and misadventure :
but if a person throws stones on the
highway, where people usually pass:
or a workman throws down rubbish
from a house, in cities and towns where
people are continually passing ; or if a
man whips his horse in the street, to
make him gallop, and the horse runs
over a child and kills it, it is manslaugh-
ter ; but if another whips the horse, it is
manslaughter in him, and chance-medley
in the rider. In chance-medley the of-
fender forfeits his goods, but has a par-
don of course.

CHANCELLOR, an officer supposed
originally to have been a notary or scribe
under the emperors, and named cancella-
riiis, because he sat behind a lattice, call-
ed in Latin canceling, to avoid being
crowded by the people.

CHANCELLOH, Lord High, of Great Bri-
tain, or Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, is
the highest honour of the long robe, be-
ing made so per traditionem magni sigilli.
per dominum regem, and by taking1 the
oaths: he is the first person of the realm
next after the king and princes of the
blood in all civil affairs ; and is the chief
administrator of justice next the sove-
reign, being the judge of the court of
chancery. All other justices are tied to
the strict rules of law in their judgment;
but the chancellor is invested with the
king's absolute power to moderate the
written law, governing his judgment
purely by the law of nature and con-
science, and ordering all things according
to equity and justice. The Lord Chan-
cellor not only keeps the King's great
seal ; but also all patents, commissions,
warrants, &c. from the King, are, before
they are signed, perused by him ; he has
the disposition of all ecclesiastical bene-
fices in the gift of the crown under 20/. a
year in the king's books; and he is
speaker of the House of lords. To him
belongs the appointment of all justices
of the peace throughout the kingdom.

CHA

CIIA

lie is the general guardian of all infants,
idiots and lunatics; and has the general
superintendence of all charitable uses in
the kingdom.

CHANCELLOR of a cathedral, an officer
that hears lessons and lectures read in the
church, either by himself or his vicar; to
correct and set right the reader when he
reads amiss ; to inspect schools; to hear
causes; apply the seal; write and dis-
patch the letters of the chapter; keep
the books; take care that there be fre-
quent preach ings both in the church and
out of it; and assign the office of preach-
ing to whom he pleases.

CHANCELLOR of the duchy of Lancaster,
an officer appointed chiefly to determine
controversies between the king and his
tenants of the duchy land, and otherwise
to direct all the King's affairs belonging
to that court.

CHANCELLOR of the Exchequer, an offi-
cer who presides in that court, and takes
care of the interest of the crown.

He is always in commission with the
Lord Treasurer, for the letting of crown-
lands, &c. and has power, with others, to
compound for forfeitures of lands upon
penal statutes : he has also great autho-
rity in managing the royal revenues, and
in matters relating to the first fruits.

CHANCELLOR of tlue order of the garter,
and other military orders, is an officer who
seals -the commissions and mandates of
the chapter and assembly of the knights,
keeps the register of their proceedings,
and delivers acts thereof under the seal
of their order.

CHANCELLOR of an university, is lie who
seals the diplomas, or letters of degrees,
provision, &c. given in the university.
The Chancellor of Oxford is usually one
of the prime nobility, chosen by the stu-
dents themselves in convocation. He is
their chief magistrate ; his office is du-
rante vita, to govern the university, pre-
serve anddefend its rights and privileges,
convoke assemblies, and do justice among
the members under his jurisdiction Un-
der the Chancellor is the Vice-Chancellor,
who is chosen annually, being nominated
by the Chancellor, and elected by the uni-
versity in convocation : he is always the
head of some college, and in holy orders.
His proper office is, to execute the Chan-
cellor's power, to govern the university
according to her statutes, to see that offi-
cers and students do their duty, that
courts be duly called, &.c. When he
enters upon his office, he chooses four
Pro-Vice-Chancellors out of the heads of
the colleges, to execute his power in his

Absence. The Chancellor of Cambridge
is also usually one of the prime nobility,
and in most respects the same as that in
Oxford, only he does not hold his office
durante vita, but may be elected every
three years. Under the chancellor there
is a Commissary, who holds a court of re-
cord for all privileged persons and scho-
lars under the degree of Master of Arts,
where all causes are tried and determined
by the civil and statute law, and by the
custom of the university. The Vice-
Chancellor of Cambridge is chosen annu-
ally by the Senate, out of two persons no-
minated by the heads of the several col-
leges and halls.

CHANCERY, the grartd court of equi-
ty and conscience, instituted to moderate
the rigour of the other courts that
are bound to the strict letter of the
law.

In Chancery are two courts; one ordi-
nary, being a court of common law ; the
other extraordinary, being a court of equi-
ty. The ordinary or common law court
is a court of record. Its jurisdiction is to
hold plea upon a scire facias, to repeal
and cancel the King's letters patent,
when made against law, or upon untriu
suggestions; and to hold plea on all per-
sonal actions, where any officer of this
court is a party; and of executions on
statutes, or of recognizances in nature of
statutes; and by several acts of Parlia-
ment, of divers other offences and causes;
but this court cannot try a cause by a
jury, but the record is to be delivered by
the Lord Chancellor into the King's
Bench, to be tried there, and judgment
given thereon. And when judgment is
given in this common law part of Chance-
ry upon demurrer, or the like, a writ of
error is returnable into the King's Bench;
but this hath not been practisedfor many
years. From this court also proceed all
original writs, commissions of charitable
uses, bankrupts, sewers, idiots, lunatics,
and the like : and for these ends this
court is always open.

The extraordinary court is a court of
equity, and proceeds by the rules of equi-
ty and good conscience. This equity con-
sists in abating the rigour of the common
law, and giving a remedy in cases where
no provision, or not sufficient provision,
had been madS by the ordinary course of
law. The jurisdiction of this court is of
vast extent. Almost all causes of weight
and moment, first or last, have their deter-
mination here. In this court relief is given
in the case of infants, married women, and
others not capable of acting for them-

CHA

selves. All frauds, for which there is no
remedy at law, are cognizable here ; as
also all breaches of trust, and unreasona-
ble or unconscionable engagements. It
will compel men to perform their agree-
ments ; will remove mortgageors and obli-
gors against penalties and forfeiture, on
payment of principal, interest, and costs ;
will rectify mistakes in conveyances ; will
grant injunctions to stay waste ; and re-
strain the proceedings of inferior courts,
that they exceed not their authority and
jurisdiction. This court will not retain a
suit for any thing under 101. value ; ex-
cept in cases of charity, nor for lands un-
der 40s. per annum.

CHANCRE, a venereal ulcer. Se SUR-
GERY.

CHANGES, in arithmetic, the varia-
tions or permutations of any number of
things, with regard to their position,
order, &c. The method of finding out
the number of changes, is by a continual
multiplication of all the terms in a series
of arithmetical progressionals, whose
first term, and common difference, is
unity, or 1 ; and last term the num-
ber of things proposed to be varied, viz.
!X2x3x4x5x6x7,&c.as will
appear from wh<at follows :

1. If the things proposed to be va-
ried are only two, they admit of a dou-
ble position, as to order of place, and no
more.

Thus,

2. And if three things are proposed to
be varied, they may be changed six seve-
ral ways, as to their order of places, and
DO more.

For, beginning with 1, there 7 1 . 2
will be 51.3

Next, beginning with 2, there £2.1
will be 52.3

Again, beginning with 3, it £ 3 .1
will be 53.2

"Which, in all, make 6, or 3 times 2 ; viz.
1X2X3 = 6.

3. Suppose 4 things were supposed to
be varied, then they admit of 24 several
changes, as to their order of different
places.

}1.2
1 . 2
1 .3
1.3
1 .4
1 . 4

And for the same reason there will be

6 different changes when 2 begins the

order, and as many when 3 and 4 begin

the order ; which, in all, is 24 = 1 X 2

VOL. III.

X 3 X 4. And by this method of pro-
ceeding it may be made evident, that 5
things admit of 120 several variations or
changes, and 6 things of 720.

Thus, if it be required, in how many
different ways seven persons may be
placed at table, the answer is 1 X 2 X 3
X 4x5x6x7 = 5040. The follow-
ing table will shew the several variations
and changes of any number of things up
to 12.

The different va-

The num-

How the varia-

riations each of

ber of th ings
to be varied.

tions are pro-
duced.

the proposed
numbers can ad-

mit of.

1 X 1

= 1

1X2

= 2

2X3

= 6

4.......

6X4

= 24

.24 x 5

= 120

120 x 6

= 720

720 x 7

= 5040

5040 x 8

= 40320

40320 x 9

= 362880

362880 x 10

= 3628800

3628800 x 11

= 39916800

39916800 X 12

= 479001600

They may thus be continued on to any
assigned number. Suppose to 24, the num-
ber of letters in the alphabet, which will
admit of 620448401733239439360000 se-
veral variations.

Since on 12 bells there would be, by
the table, 479001600 changes: suppose
10 changes to be rung in a minute, that is
10 X 12, or 120 strokes in a minute, it
would even then require upwards of 90
years to ring over all the changes on the
12 bells.

CHANGES of quantities^ in algebra, the
same with what is otherwise called com-
bination. See COMBINATION.

CHANNEL, in hydrography, the deep-
est part of a river, harbour, strait, &c.
which is most convenient for the track of
shipping, also an arm of the sea running
between an island and the main or conti-
nent, as the British Channel.

CHAOS, in natural history, a genus of
insects, belonging to the order Zoophyta.
The body has no covering ; no joints ; no
external organs of sensation. There are
five species, most obtained by fusion of
different vegetables in water, and seen
only by the aid of the microscope.

CHAPLAIN, an ecclesiastic, who offi-
ciates in a chapel. The King of Great
Britain hath forty-eight chaplains in ordi-
nary, usually eminent doctors in divinity,

CHA

who wait four each month, preach in the
chapel, read the service to the family,
and to the King in his private oratory,
and say grace in the absence of the
clerk of the closet. Besides, there are
|t twenty. four chaplains at Whitehall, fel-
lows of Oxford or Cambridge, who
preach in their turns, and are allowed
thirty pounds per annum each. Accord-
ing to a statute of Henry VJII. the per-
sons vested with a power of retaining
chaplains, together with the number
Cach is allowed to qualify, is as follows :
an archbishop, eight; a duke or bishop,
six ; marquis or earl, .five ; viscount, four ;
baron, knight of the garter, or lord chan-
cellor, three ; a duchess, marchioness,
countess, baroness, the treasurer and
comptroller of the king's house, clerk of
the closet* the king's secretary, dean of
the chapel, almoner and master of the
rolls, each of them two ; chief justice of
the King's Bench, and warden of the
Cinque Ports, each one. All these chap-
lains may purchase a license or dispensa-
tion, and take two benefices with cure of
souls. A chaplain must be retained by
letters testimonial under hand and seal ;
for it is not sufficient that he serve as
chaplain in the family.

CHAPLET, in architecture, a small or-
nament, carved into round beads, pearls,
oliv*es, and pater-nosters, as is frequently
done in baguettes.

CHAPPE, in heraldry, the dividing
an escutcheon by lines drawn from the
centre of the upper edge to the angles
below into three parts, the sections on
the sides being of a different metal or co-
lour from the rest.

CHAPTER, in ecclesiastical policy, a
society or community of ecclesiastics be-
longing to a cathedral or collegiate church.

It was in the eighth century that the
body of canons began to be called a
ch apter. The chapter of the canons of a
cathedral were a standing council to the
bishop, and, during the vacancy of the
see, had the jurisdiction of the diocese.
In4he earlier ages, the bishop was head
of the chapter; afterwards abbots and
other dignitaries, as deans, provosts,
treasurers, &c. were preferred to this
distinction. The deans and chapters had
the privilege of choosing the bishops in
England, but Henry VIII. got this power
vested in the crown ; and as the same
prince expelled the monks from the
cathedrals, and placed secular canons in
their room, those he thus regulated were
called deans and chapters of the new
foundation ; such are, Canterbury, Win-
chester, Ely, Carlisle, &c.

CHARA, in botany, a genus of the
Monoecia Monandria class and order.
Natural order of Inundatae. Naiades,
Jussieu. Essential character : male ca-
lyx and corolla none ; anther before the
germ, underneath. Female, calyx four-
leaved ; corolla none ; stigmas five-cleft;
seed one. There are four species, of
which C. tomentosa, brittle chara, or
stone wort, is always flesh-coloured when
alive, and when dry it becomes ash-co-
loured ; stem twisted, brittle, and gritty
in the mouth, like coralline ; low and
creeping in marshes where the're is little
water. In summer, this plant abounds in
oblong berries, growing yellow when
ripe, having small black seeds in them.
It is an annual, flowering from June to
October.

CHARACTER, in a general sense, de-
notes any mark whatever, serving to
represent either things or ideas ; thus,
letters are characters, types, or marks of
certain sounds ; words, of ideas, &c.

Characters are of infinite advantage in
almost all sciences, for conveying in the
most concise and expressive manner an
author's meaning ; however, such a mul-
tiplicity of them, as we find used by dif-
ferent nations, must be allowed to be a
very considerable obstacle to the im-
provement of knowledge ; several au-
thors have therefore attempted to esta-
blish characters that should be univer-
sal, and which each nation might read in
their own language ; and, consequently,
which should be real, not nominal or ar-
bitrary, but expressive of things them-
selves; thus, the universal character for
a horse would be read by an Englishman
horset by a Frenchman cheval, by the La-
tins equus, by the Greeks, STTTTO^, &c.

The first who made any attempts for
an universal character in Europe were,
Bishop Wilkins and Dalgarme : Mr. Leib-
nitz also turned his thoughts that way ;
and Mr. Lodwic, in the Philosophical
Transactions, gives a plan of an universal
character, which was to contain an enu-
meration of all such single sounds as are
used in any language. The advantages
he proposed to derive from this character
were, that people would be enabled to
pronounce truly and readily any lan-
guage that should be pronounced in their
hearing; and lastly, that this character
would serve as a standard to perpe-
tuate the sounds of every language what-
soever.

CHARACTER is also used, in several of
the arts, for a symbol, contrived for
the more concise and immediate con-

CHARACTERS.

veyance of the knowledge of things.
We shall here subjoin the principal of
them.

CHARACTERS used in Algebra and Arith-
metic.

a, bt c, d, &c. the first letters of the al-
phabet, are the characters of given quan-
tities ; and z, y, x, &c. the last letters, are
the characters of quantities sought. See
the article ALREBRA.

m, n, r, s, t, &c. are characters of inde-
terminate exponents both of ratios and of
powers : thus, xm, yn, zr, &c. denote un-
determined powers of different kinds;
m x, n if, r z, different multiples or sub-
multiples of the quantities x, y, z, accord-
ing as m, n, r, are either whole numbers
or fractions.

•4- is the sign of the real existence of
the quantity it stands before, and is call-
ed an affirmative or positive sign. It is
also the mark of addition, and is read
plus, or more ; thus a 4- 6, or 3 -f- 5, im-
plies a is added to b, or 3 added to 5.

— before a single quantity is the sign
of negation or negative existence, shew-
ing the quantity to which it is prefixed to
be less than nothing. But between quan-
tities, it is the sign of subtraction, and is
read minus, or less ; thus, a — b, or 8 — 4,
implies b subtracted from a, or 8 after 4
has been subtracted.

= is the sign of equality, though Des
£artes and some others use this mark X;
thus, a = b signifies that a is equal to b.
Wolfius and some others use the mark =
for the indentity of ratios.

X is the sign of multiplication; shewing
that the quantities on each side the same
are to be multiplied by one another, as
a X b is to be read a multiplied into b ;
4x8, the product of 4 multiplied into
8. Wolfius and others make the sign of
multiplication a dot between the two
factors ; thus, 5 . 4 signifies the product
of 5 and 4. In algebra the sign is com-
monly omitted, and the two quantities
put together ; thus b d expresses the pro-
duct of b and d. When one or both of
the factors are compounded of several
letters, they are distinguished by a line
drawn over them ; thus, the factum of a
•4- b — c Into J, is wrote d X a -f- b — c.)
Leibnitz, Wolfius, and' others, distin-
guish the compound factors by including
them in a parenthesis ; thus (a + b — c dj

-T- is the sign of division ; thus, a -7- b
denotes the quantity a to be divided by
b. In algebra the quotient is often ex-
pressed like a fraction ; thus, -7 denotes

the quotient of a divided by b. Wolfius
makes the sign of division two dots ; thus,
12 : 4 denotes the quotient of 12 divided
by 4 = 3. If either the divisor or divi-
dend, or both, be composed of several
letters, for example, a -f- b -~ c, instead
of writing the quotient like a fraction,

- ' Wolfius includes the compound

quantities in a parenthesis ; thus, (a -}* 6)
: c.

©•• is the character of involution : du is
the character of evolution.

7 or CT are signs of majority ; thus a
"7 b expresses that a is greater than b.

£ or *D are signs of minority ; and
when we would denote that a is less than
b, we write a £ b, or a -3 b.

co is the character of similitude used
by Wolfius, Leibnitz, and others : it is
used in other authors for the difference
between two quantities, while it is un-
known which is the greater of the two.

:: is the mark of geometrical propor-
tion disjunct, and is usually placed be-
tween two pair of equal ratios, as 3 : 6
:: 4 : 8, shews that 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8.

— the mark of geometrical proportion
continued, implies the ratio to be still
earned on without interruption, as, 2, 4,
8, 16, 32, 64 ~ are in the same uninter-
rupted proportion.

\/ is the character of radicality, and-
shews, according to the index of the
power that is set over it, or after it, that
the square, cube, or other root, is ex-
tracted, or to be extracted ; thus, ^/ 16,
or v/1 16, or ^/ (2) 16, is the square
root of 16, ^/ 25, the cube root of 25,
&c. This character sometimes affects
several quantities, distinguished by a line
drawn over them ; thus ^/ b -\- d de-
dotes the sum of the square roots of b
and d. When any term or terms of an
equation are wanting, they are generally
supplied by one or more asterisms ; thus,
in the equation

vanishing is marked with an asterism, aS
y> #—i/>1 + <?.

CHARACTERS used in astronomy.

Characters of the planets.
Ij Saturn Q Sun C Moon
^ Jupiter 9 Venus 0 Earth
£ Mars £ Mercury.
Of the signs.

°f> Aries St Leo / Sagittarius
fc! Taurus H£ Virgo 1ft Cupricornus
n Gemini =2= Libra $~ Aquarius
05 Cancer n^ Scorpio X Pisces.

CHARACTERS.

Of the aspect.

6 or S. Conjunction^ Trine
SS. Semisextile Bq. Biquintile

5|c Sextile Vc. Quincunx

Q. Quintile £ Opposition

D Quartile ££ Dragon's head

Td. Tredecile £5 Dragon's tail.

Of time.
A. M. ante meridiem, before the sun comes

upon the meridian.
O. orN. noon.

P. M. post meridiem, when the sun is past
the meridian.

CHARACTERS, used in the arithmetic of
infinites.

. the character of an infinitesimal or
fluxion ; thus a", t/, &c. express the flux-
ions or differentials of the variable x and
y ', and two, three, or more dots denote
second, third, or higher fluxions. M.
Leibnitz, instead of a dot, prefixes the
letter d to the variable quantity, in order
to avoid the confusion of dots in the dif-
ferencing of differentials. See CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIALS.

CHARACTERS in Medicine and Phar-
macy.

ij> recipe

a, a a, or ana, of each
alike

tb a pound or a
pint

g an ounce

3 a drachm

^ a scruple

gr. grains

P. a pugil

P. JE. equal quanti-
ties

S. A. according to
art

q. s. a sufficient

quantity
fi,or*s,halfofany

thing
cong. congius, a

gallon
coch. cochleare, a

spoonful
M. manipulus, a

handful
q. pi. as much as

you please
P. P. pulvispatrum,

the Jesuit's bark.

CHARACTERS used in music, and of mu-
sical notes, with their proportions, are as
follow :

N character of > R Pminim £
a large $ f crotchet i

C] a long 4 f quaver £

D a breve 2 £ semiquaver Ji

O a semibrere 1 £ demisemiquaver 1

ffcharacter of a sharp note : this cha-
racter, at the beginning of a line or space,
denotes that all the notes in that line are
to be taken a semitone higher than in the
natural series ; and the same affects all
the octaves above or below, though not
marked : but when prefixed to any parti-
cular note, it shows that note alo»e to be
taken a semitone higher than it would be
without such character.

[7 or b, character of a flat note : this is
tke contrary to the other above, that is,
a semitone lower.

fcj character of a natural note : when in
a line or series of artificial notes, marked
at the beginning fa or W, the natural note
happens to be required, it is denoted by
this character.

gj character of the treble cliff.

|^j| character of the mean cliff.
0: bass cliff.

2, or », or .*, characters of common
duple time : signifying the measure of
two crotchets to be equal to two notes, of
which four make a semibreve.

C(fe tl) characters that distinguish the
movements of common time, the first im-
plying slow, the second quick, and the
third very quick.

•J' f'-|'!"Tff' cnaracters °f simple
trinje time, the measure of which is
equal to three semibreves, or to three
minims.

s, or |., or J^, characters of mixed
triple time, where the measure is equal to
six crotchets or six quavers.

|, or |, or _?£., or |, or |, characters of
compound triple time.

J_*, y, i.|, or i_2, or y, characters
of that species of triple time called the
measure of twelve times.

CHARACTERS of the rests or pauses of
time.

1 II

CHARACTERS, numeral, used to express
numbers, are either letters or figures.
The Arabic character, called also the
common one, because it is used almost
throughout Europe in all sorts of calcu-
lations, consists of these ten digits, 1, 2,
3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0.

The Roman numeral characters con-
sist of seven majuscule letters of the
Roman alphabet, viz. I, V, X, L, C, D, M.
The I denotes one, V five, X ten, L
fifty, C a hundred, D five hundred, and
M. a thousand.

CHARACTERS.

The I repeated twice makes two, II ;
thrice, three, III ; four is expressed thus,
IV. as I before V or X takes an unit from
the number expressed by these letters.
To express six, an I is lidded to a V, VI ;
for seven, two, VII ; and for eight, three,
VIII ; nine is expressed by an I before X,
thus, IX.

The same remark may be made of the
X before L or C, except that the di-
minution is by tens ; thus XL denotes
forty, XC ninety, and LX sixty. The
C before D or M diminishes each by a
hundred.

The number five hundred is sometimes
expressed by an I before a C invert-
ed, thus IQ ; and instead of M, which
signifies a thousand, an I is sometimes
used between two C's the one direct,
and the other inverted, thus ClQ. The
addition of C and 3 before or after, raises
ClQ by tens, thus CCIoo expresses ten
thousand, CCCIooo a hundred thou-
sand. The Romans also expressed any
number of thousands by a line drawn
over any numeral less than a thousand ;
thus, ~V~ denotes five thousand, LX sixty
thousand ; so likewise M is one million,
MM is two millions, &c.
, The Greeks had three ways of express-
ing numbers: first, every letter, according
to its place in the alphabet, denoted a
number, from ee,, one, to U) twenty-four.
2. The alphabet was divided into eight
units, a, one, $ two, y three, &c. into
eight tens, ( ten,* twenty, A thirty, &c.
and eight hundreds, g one hundred, c- two
hundred, r three hundred, &c. 3. i stood
for one, n (srevVO five, A (<$W*) ten, H
+x,«,lov} a hundred, x (£/*«*) a thousand,
M (ftvptct) ten thousand ; and when the
letter n inclosed any of these except r,
it showed the inclosed letter to be five
times its value ; as I A j fifty, '**! five hun-
dred, |X| five thousand, ]M| fifty thou-
sand.

The Hebrew numerals consisted of
their alphabet divided into nine units ;
thus, K one, 3 two, Sec.: nine tens ; thus,
•> ten, 3 twenty, &c.; nine hundreds; thus,
p one hundred, n two hundred, &c.: and
1 five hundred, Q six hundred, i seven
hundred, M eight hundred, ynine hundred.
They expressed thousands by the word
nStfj with the other numerals prefixed to
signify the number of thousands : thus,
O^Stf* two thousand, 111, three
thousana.

CHARACTERS upon tomb-stones.

S. V. Siste viator, i. e. Stop traveller,

M. S. Memorise sacrum, i. e. Sacred to
the memory.

CHARACTER, in law, if a person apply
to another for the character of a third
person, and a good character as to his
solvency be given, yet if, inconsequence
of this opinion, the party asking the
question suffer loss through the person's
insolvency, no action lies against him
who gave the character, if it were fairly
given. But if a man assert what he knows
to be false, and thereby draws his neigh-
bour into a loss, it is actionable. But if
the party giving credit also knew that the
party credited was in bad circumstances,
an action will not lie.

CHARACTERS, in botany, the descrip-
tion of the genera of plants, so termed by
Linnaeus ; hence the generic character of
any plant, and the definition of the ge-
nus, are synonymous terms. The term
character is not extended by that author
to the species of plants, because he never
gives the complete description of any
species ; but only enumerates those cha-
racters or circumstances in which it dif-
fers from all the other species of the
same genus. This observation sufficient-
ly illustrates the different methods which
are observed in the Genera and Species
Plantarum. In the former work, all the
parts of the flower and fruit from which
the characters of the genera are derived
are accurately and completely described;
in the latter, such striking circumstances
only of the stem, leaves, buds, roots, &c.
are mentioned, as sufficiently distinguish
the species in question from every other
of that genus to which it belongs.

In general, characters, or characteris-
tical marks, according to the idea of
systematic writers, are certain external
signs, obvious in the appearance of na-
tural bodies, by means of which they
are distinguished from one another.
These signs being collected,and express-
ed by proper words, lay the foundation
at once for definition,distribution, and de-
nomination, the three grand parts of prac-
tical botany. The characteristic mark of
each genus is to be fixed from the fi-
gure, situation, connection, number, and
proportion of all the parts. Any part
of a body, considered either in itself or
with relation to others, is found to pos-
sess all the properties just enumerated.
Characters, therefore, may be drawn
from all the parts, to define the difference
of bodies; thus the leaf, stem, flower,
and its parts, in plants ; the foot, wing,

CHA

fin, in animals ; all differ in their figure,
situation, number, and proportion, and
exhibit characters proper for distinction.
Experience shows that one part, or pro-
perty of a part, varies'more than another;
in constituting a method, therefore,those
parts and properties are to be selected
which vary least. Thus the parts of
flowers in vegetables, the feet,fins, beaks,
in animals, are more fixed, with respect to
the above mentioned properties. A.gain,
the figure and number of these parts are
more apt to vary than theirjjsituatiori, con-
nection, and proportion ; the characters,
therefore, are, if possible, to be taken
from these last.

Artificial character. — The artificial cha-
racter, otherwise called accidental, and,
by Linnaeus, factitious, is drawn indiscri-
minately from different parts of the plant,
and admits of fewer or more characteris-
tlcal marks than are absolutely necessary
for distinguishing the classes, genera,
and species. Linnaeus, who particularly
applies all the characters just enumerated
to the distribution of the genera, estab-
lishes for a criterion of the artificial cha-
racter, that it can never distinguish the
genera in a natural order? being calcu-
lated merely for discriminating such as
arrange themselves under the same arti-
ficial order. To the head of artificial
characters is referred, by Linnaeus, the
description of the genera, in the methods
of Tournefort, Ray, Rivinus, Boerhaave,
and most of the other systematic bo-
tanists. The classical characters only,
in the sexual method, are deemed ar-
tificial : the generical, as exhausting the
description of the parts of fructification,
its author considers as true natural cha-
racters.

Linnaeus's ,idea of an artificial charac-
ter is well expressed by Ray, when he
says, that no more characteristical marks
of the genera are to be collected, than
are found absolutely necessary for deter-
mining the genus with certainty and pre-
cision.

Essential character. — The essential
character discriminates one plant from
another by means of a single mark, so
striking and particular, as to distin-
guish the plant in which it is found
from every other at first sight. It serves,
says Linnaeus, to distinguish such genera
as arrange themselves under the same na-
tural order. The essential character of
the classes and genera, by the consent
of all the modern systematic botanists,
ought to be drawn from one of the seven
parts of fructification ; that of the species

from any of the other parts, as the stem,
leaf, root, buds, &c.

Natural character. — This character in-
cludes the two former, and collects all the
possible marks of plants. It is useful,
says Linnaeus, in every method ; lays the
foundation of the systems ; remains un-
changed, although new genera be daily
discovered ; and is capable of emendation
by the detection of new species alone,
which afford an opportunity of excluding
such characteristical marks as are totally
superfluous. He adds, that the Genera
Plantarum first introduced these charac-
ters into the science.

CHARADRFUS, or the/>/or>er, in natu-
ral history, a genus of birds of the or-
der Grallae. Generic character : bill
straight, and in general about the length
of the head; nostrils linear; three toes,
and all placed forward. There are twen-
ty-six species, of which the most interest-
ing are the following.

C. pluvialis, or the golden plover. This
species inhabits Great Britain during the
whole of the year, frequenting particular-
ly the Grampian Hills and the mountains
of the Hebrides. Theirlength is about ten
inches andahalf. They make a shrill noise
like that of a whistle, by the imitation of
which they are easily decoyed withiix
reach of the gun.

C. himantopus, or long legged plover,
is occasionally to be found in England,
though now but rarely. It is common in
Egypt, where its food consists of flies. It
is mostcharacteristicallydesignated,as the
length of its legs is most extraordinary.

C. hiaticula, or ringed plover, arrives
in England in the spring, and leaves it
in autumn. During the summer these
birds frequent the coast. They run witl»
great rapidity, and often for a considera-
ble time mingle short flights and rapid
runnings, till at length they avoid the dan-
ger pursuing them, by retreating to some
cleft or hole, or flying off completely. It
is observed to use various stratagems to
attract attention from its young. The fe-
male builds no nest, and lays her eggs
upon the ground.

C. morinellus, or the dotterel. This
species abounds in various parts of Eng-
land, particularly in Cambridgeshire.
They are migratory, and appear often ia
flocks of eight or ten. They are suppos-
ed to breed in the mountains of Cumber-
land, as they 'appear there in May. and
are not seen there after the breeding
season. In June they become extremely
fat in Lincolnshire and Derbyshire, and
are highly esteemed for their flavour and

CHA

delicacy. They abound in Sweden, Russia,
and Siberia, and from their extraordinary
stupidity fall an easy prey to the clumsi-
est stratagem of the fowler. See Plate
IV. Aves, fig. 4 and 5.

CHARCOAL, is wood burnt through,
and suddenly extinguished by being co-
vered with fresh earth. It is perhaps
one of the most durable substances with
which we are acquainted, not being de-
composed either by the air or the water.
It is of great use in many processes where
a strong heat is required : it is an antisep-
tic ; but very dangerous as fuel in confin-
ed places. In chemistry, the terms car-
bon and charcoal were long confounded,
and supposed to mean the same thing ;
but the experiments by Morveau and
others have pointed out the precise dis-
tinction. See CARBON.

When charcoal is prepared in the usual
way, by exposing wood in close vessels to
a red heat, it always contains a portion of
hydrogen. For if a quantity of this char-
coal be exposed to a strong heat in a re-
tort of porcelain, iron, or coated glass, a
great quantity of gas is obtained. The gas
which comes over first is a mixture of car-
bonic acid and heavy inflammable gas ;
but the proportion of carbonic acid di-
minishes, and at last it ceases to come
'over at all ; yet the inflammable gas con-
tinues as copious as ever. The evolution
of these gases was long ascribed by che-
mists to the water which charcoal usually
contains, and which it is known to absorb
from the atmosphere with, considerable
avidity. If that were the case, the pro-
portion of inflammable gas ought to dimi-
nish at the same rate with the carbonic
acid; the hydrogen of the one being
equally derived from the decomposition
of water with the oxygen of the other. But
as the evolution of inflammable gas conti-
nues after that of carbonic acid has ceased,
it is scarcely possible to deny, that the hy-
drogen which thus escapes constituted a
component part of the charcoal.

If, therefore, we consider the experi-
ments of Morveau on the combustion of
the diamond asdecisive,we must conclude
that common charcoal is composed of
three ingredients, namely, carbon, hy-
drogen, and oxygen. It is of course a
triple compound.

When common charcoal is exposed for
an hour, in a close crucible, to the strong-
est heat of a forge, it ceases to emit gas;
and no temperature is sufficient to expel
gas from charcoal thus treated. Desormes
and Clement have endeavoured to demon-
strate, that by this treatment common

charcoal is deprived of the whole of its
hydrogen. The same chemists tried the
combustion of charcoal obtained from a
variety of other substances exposed to
the heat of a forge, as pitcoal, animal sub-
stances, and various vegetable substan-
ces, and found the products exactly the
same. Hence they conclude that char-
coal is in all cases the same, provided it
be exposed to a heat strong enough ; and
they conclude too, that by this strong heat
the whole hydrogen of common charcoal
is expelled.

These facts enable us to conclude, that
there are two species of charcoal, name-
ly, common and prepared charcoal. The
first contains three ingredients, carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen ; the second is de-
prived of a portion of its hydrogen and
oxygen. It consists chiefly of carbon and
oxygen united; but it still retains a small
portion of hydrogen, and is not, there-
fore, strictly speaking, a pure oxyde of
carbon, though it approaches very nearly
to such an oxide.

CHARGE, in gunnery, the quantity of
gunpowder and ball wherewith a gun is
loaded for execution. The rule for charg-
ing large pieces in war are, that the piece
be first cleaned or scoured withinside :
that the proper quantity of powder be
next driven in and rammed down ; care
however being taken, that the powder
in ramming be not bruised, because that
weakens its effect : that a little quantity
of paper, hay, lint, or the like, be ram-
med over it, and that the ball or shot be
intruded. If the ball be red-hot, a tam-
pion or trencher of green wood, is to be
driven in before it. The weight of the
powder necessary for a charge is com-
monly in a subduple proportion to that of
the ball.

CHARGE, in heraldry, is applied to the
figures represented on the escutcheon, by
which the bearers are distinguished from
one another; and it is to be observed, that
too many charges are not so honourable
as fewer.

CHARGED, in heraldry, a shield car-
rying some impress or figure, is said to
be charged therewith ; so also when one
bearing, or charge, has another figure
added upon it, it is properly said to be
charged.

CHART, or hydrografchical map, in na-
vigation, is a representation, in piano, of
a part, or of the whole, of the water on
the surface of the globe, and the adjacent
coast. There are various kinds of charts,
as Globular, Plane, Mercator's, &c.

CHART, globular, is a projection, so call-

CHARTS.

ed from the conformity it bears to the
globe itself. This projection was pro-
posed by Senex, in which the meridians
are inclined, the parallels equidistant and
curvilinear, and the rhomb-lines real spi-
rals, as on the surface of the globe. From
this last property, it is evident it can be
of very little use in navigation ; as a map,
however, it has its advantages.

Construction of Charts.

1. Of the plane chart. — The number of
degrees of latitude which the chart is in-
tended to contain, and the extent from
east to west being fixed upon, a line is
to be drawn near the side or end of a
sheet of paper, in length equal to the
whole length of the chart from north to
south ; and this line is to be divided into
degrees, and numbered accordingly.
From each end of this line perpendicu-
lars are to be drawn, and made equal to
the intended extent of the chart from east
to west, and their extremities are to be
joined by a straight line. If the chart is to
commence at or near the equator, and to
extend only a few degrees of latitude, the
divisions of the parallels may be equal to
those of the meridian; but if the chart be-
gins at any considerable distance from the
equator, it will conduce to accuracy, to
make the length of each degree of the pa-
rallel equal to the co-sine of the mean la-
titude, the radius being 60 minutes ; or
the extreme parallels may be divided ac-
cording to the above proportion, and in
that case it will become a reduced chart.
Meridians and parallels are there to be
drawn at convenient distances.

A scale is now to be made of stiff paper
or pasteboard, equal in length to the ex-
tent of the chart from east to west, and
divided and numbered accordingly. By
this scale, the positions of those places
contained within the limits of the chart
are very easily laid down, by placing the
divided edge of the scale over the latitude
of the given place ; and under the given
longitude, a mark being made will repre-
sent the position of the place on the chart.

A compass is to be inserted in any con-
venient place of the chart, an arrow shew-
ing the direction of the flood tide or cur-
rent. The times of high water at full and
change are to be marked in their proper
places, expressed in Roman characters ;
sounding and quality of the ground at bot-
tom, the leading marks to avoid dangers,
&c.

II. Of a Mercator's chart. — A Mercator's
chart, for any given portion of the surface

of the globe, is constructed as follows :
the limit of the proposed chart is first to
be determined ; that is, the number of de-
grees of latitude and longitude which it is
to contain, and the degree of latitude and
longitude of its commencement. Find the
meridional parts answering to each degree
of latitude, within the intended limits of
the chart, and take the difference between
each, and that corresponding to the least
degree of latitude in the chart; and reduce
these differences Jto degrees by dividing
by 60.

A parallel, representing that of the least
latitude, is to be drawn ; upon which the
number of degrees in the proposed differ-
ence of longitude, from a scale of equal
parts, is to be laid off, and divided into de-
grees, and smaller portions of, if conve-
nient, and numbered at each fifth or
tenth degree. From each end of this pa-
rallel a perpendicular is to be drawn, and
made equal to the difference of the meri-
dional partsof the extreme latitudes taken
from the divided parallel ; and the ends
of these meridians are to be joined by a
straight line, which will represent the
other extreme parallel, and which is to
be divided and numbered in the same
manner as the first drawn parallel ; the
meridians are then to be divided into de-
grees, and numbered at every fifth or
tenth degree. Take the meridional dif-
ference of latitude between the begin-
ning of the chart, and the next fifth or
tenth degree of latitude from the divided
parallel, and lay it off from the first paral-
lel on each of the scale meridians, and join
these points by a straight line. In like man-
ner the meridional difference of latitude,
answering to each successive interval of
five or ten degrees, is to be taken from the
first drawn parallel and laid off, and the
corresponding parallels are to be drawn
and numbered accordingly, and the inter-
mediate spaces are to be subdivided. If the
chart is upon a large scale, the meridional
difference of latitude answeringto eachde-
gree is to b e laid off from the least parallel .

If the chart is intended to be upon a
larger scale, equi-multiples of the inter-
vals are to be taken, such as will answer
to the proposed extent of the chart. A
slip of strong paper is to be divided, and
numbered in the same manner as the first
drawn parallel. Now each place within
the limits of the chart is to be laid down,
by placing the slip of paper so, that its ex-
treme points of division may be at the lati-
tude of the given place on each meridian ;
then, under the longitude of the place, a
mark is to be made, which will represent

CHARTS.

the position of that place. In like manner
all the places on the coast are to be laid
clown and connected by observations
made on the coast : or if no sketch had
been previously made, the contour of the
coast is to be drawn agreeable to the best
charts. Meridians and parallels are to be
drawn through every fifth or tenth degree
of latitude and longitude, and extended
to the coast.

A compass is to be inserted in some
convenient part of the chart, and the
points extended to the land : an anchor
is to be drawn where there is good an-
choring ground, and in places where it is
safe only to stop a tide, an anchor without
a stock is to belaid down. The soundings,
the quality of the ground, the times of
high water at full and change, &c. are
to be marked in their proper places.

CHARTS, manner of itsi?ig. — The princi-
pal use of a chart is, to find the course
and distance between any two places
within its limits, and to lay down the
place of a ship on it, so that the position
of the ship with respect to the intended
port, the adjacent land, islands, &c. may
be readily perceived.

To find the latitude of a place on the chart.

Rule. — Take the nearest distance be-
tween the given place and the nearest
parallel of latitude, which being applied
the same way on the divided meridian,
from the point of intersection of the pa-
rallel and meridian, will give the latitude
of the proposed place.

Example. — Required the latitude of
Port Louis, in the isle of France. The
least distance between Port Louis and the
nearest parallel, being laid the same way
on the meridian, from the extremity of
that parallel, will reach to 20° 8' S., the
latitude required.

To find the course and distance between tivo
given places on the chart.

Rule. — Lay the edge of a scale over the
given places, and take the nearest dis-
tance between the centre of any of the
compasses on the chart and the edge of
the scale ; move this extent along, so as
one point of the compass may touch the
edge of the scale, and the straight line
joining the points may be perpendicular
thereto; then will the other point shew
the course; and the interval between the
places being applied to the scale will
give the required distance.

Example.— Required the course- and
distance from Cape St. Andre to Cape

VOL. III.

St. Sebastian, both in the island of Mada-
gascar. The edge of a scale being laid
over the two places, then, by moving
the compass as directed, the course will
be found to be N. E. £ E., and the in-
terval between them will measure 105
leagues.

The course and distance sailed from a known
place being given, to find the ship's place
on the Chart.

Rule. — Lay the edge of a scale over the
place sailed from, parallel to the given
course; then take the given distance
from the scale on the chart, and lay it oft'
from the given place by the edge of
the scale, and it will give the point on
the chart representing the place on the
ship.

Example. — The correct course of a ship
from Cape St. Maria, on the north side
the entrance of the river La Plata, was
N. E. by E. and the distance 238 leagues.
Required the place of the ship on the
chart. The edge of the scale being laid
over Cape St. Maria, in a N. E. by E. di-
rection, and the distance 238 leagues,
laid off from Cape St. Maria by the edge
of the scale, will give the place of the
ship, which will be found to be in the la-
titude 23° 15' S.

To find the longitude of a place on the
Chart.

Ride. — Take the least distance between
the given place and the nearest meridian,
which being laid off on the equator, or
divided parallel, from the point of inter-
section of the parallel and meridian, will
give its longitude.

Example. — Required the longitude of
Funchal in the island of Madeira. The
least distance being taken between Fun-
chal and the nearest meridian,and laid off
from the intersection of that meridian
with the divided parallel, will give 17° &
W., the longitude required.

To find the distance bet-ween tivo given places
on the Chart.

1. When the given places are under
the same meridian.

Rule. — Find the latitude of each ; then
the difference or sum of their latitudes,
according as they are on the same, or on
opposite sides of the equator, will be the
distance required.

Example. — Required the distance be-
tween the nearest extremities of the is-
lands of Grenada and Guadaloupe.

CHA

Latitude of southermost ex-
tremity of Guaduloupe 15° 5'2f N.

Latitude of northermost ex-
tremity of Grenada - - 12° 14' N.

Distance 3° 38' =218 M.

2. When the given places are under
the same parallel.

Rule. — If that parallel is the equator,
the difference, or sum of their longitudes
is the distance between them. If not,
take half the interval between the given
places, lay it off' on the meridian on each
side of the given parallel, and the inter-
cepted degrees will be the distance be-
tween the places. If the given parallel is
near the north or south extremity of the
chart, the following method may be used.
Take an extent of a few degrees from
that part of the meridian where the given
parallel is the middle of the extent;
then the number of extents, and parts
of an extent, contained between the
given places, being multiplied by the
length of an extent, will give the required
distance.

Example. — Required the distance be-
tween Cape Canton and Funchal, both
lying nearly in the same parallel. By
proceeding as directed above, the dis-
tance will be found to be 6° 44', or 404
tpiles.

3. When the given places differ both
in latitude and longitude.

Rule. — Find the difference of latitude
between the given places, and take it
from the equator or graduated parallel ;
then lay the edge of a scale over the
given places, and move or slide one point
of the compass along the edge of the
scale, until the other point just touches a
parallel. Now, the distance between
the place where the point of the compass
rested, and the point of intersection of
the edge of the scale and parallel being
applied to the equator, or divided paral-
lel, will give the distance between the
places in degrees and parts of a degree ;
which, multiplied by 60, will give the dis-
tance in miles.

Example. — Required the distance be-
tween Cape Finisterre and Porto Santo.

Take the difference of latitude be-
tween the given places, viz. 9° 54', from
the graduated parallel, and move one
point of the compass along the edge of
the scale, laid previously over these
places, until the other point just touches
a parallel : now the interval between the

place where the point of the compass
rented, and the point of intersection of
the scale, and parallel, being applied to
the divided parallel, will measure 11° 24',
or 684 miles.

CHART A, magna, an ancient instru-
ment, containing several privileges and
liberties grunted to the church and state
by Edward the Confessor, together with
others relating to the feudal laws of Wil-
liam the Conqueror, granted by Henry I.
all confirmed by the succeeding princes.
See MAGSA CHARTA.

CHARTER, in law, a written instru-
ment or evidence of things acted be-
tween one person and another.

CnARTER-/>arfy, is a contract under
hand and seal, executed by the freighter
and the master or owner of the ship, con-
taining the terms upon which the ship is
hired to freight ; the masters and owners
usually bind themselves, the ship, tackle,
and furniture, that the goods freighted
shall be delivered (dangers of the sea ex-
cepted) well conditioned, at the place of
the discharge ; and they also covenant to
provide mariners, tackle, &c, and to
equip the ship complete and adequate to
the voyage. The freighter stipulates to
pay the consideration money for the
freight ; and penalties are annexed to en-
force the reciprocal covenants. A char-
ter-party is the same in the civil law as at;
indenture at common law : and is distin-
guished from a bill of lading, inasmuch as
the former adjusts the term of the freight,
and the latter ascertains the contents of
the cargo.

CHARTERS of community, were certain
privileges, first obtained by violence or
purchase, and afterwards freely bestowed
by emperors, kings, and barons ; where-
by the inhabitants of towns and cities
were enfranchised, all marks of servitude
abolished, and these cities, &c. were
formed into corporations and bodies po-
litic, to be governed by a council and ma-
gistrates of their own nomination. The
first person who conferred these privi-
leges was Lewis the Gross in France,
about the beginning of the twelfth cen-
tury ; and his example was soon very ge-
nerally followed. These charters con-
vey a very striking representation of the
wretched condition of cities previous to
the institution of communities, when they
were subject to the judges appointed by
the superior lords, of whom they held,
and had scarcely any other law but their
will.

CHARTER of the forest, is that wherein
the laws of the forest are comprised and
established. In the time of King John,

CHE

and that of his son, Henry III. the ri-
gours of the feudal tenures and the for-
est laws were so warmly maintained, that
they occasioned many insurrect'ons of
the barons or principal feudatories,
which at last produced this effect, that
first King John, and afterwards his son,
consented to the two famous charters of
English liberties, Magna Carta, and Car-
ta de Foresta. The latter, in particular,
was well calculated to redress many
grievances and encroachments of the
crown, in the execution of forest law. This
charter, as well as the other, was estab-
lished, confirmed, and settled, in the
reign of Edward I.

CHARTER governments of the British colo-
nies, are in the nature of civil corpora-
tions, with the power of making by-laws
for their own interior regulation, not con-
trary to the laws of England ; and with
such rights and authorities as are special-
ly given them in their several charters of
incorporation. The form of government
is borrowed from that of England. They
have a governor named by the King, (or
in some proprietary colonies by the pro-
prietor,) who is his representative or de-
puty. They have courts of justice of
their own, from whose decision an appeal
(as some say, in the nature of a reference
by way of arbitration) lies to the King in
council in England. Their general As-
semblies, which are their House of Com-
mons, together with their Council of
State, being their Upper House, with the
concurrence of the King, or his represen-
tative the Governor, make laws suited to
their own emergencies. But it is parti-
cularly declared, by stat. T and 8 William
III. c. 22. that all laws, by-laws, usages,
and customs, which shall be in practice
in any of the plantations, repugnant to
any law made, or to be made, in the king-
dom of Great Britain, relative to the said
plantations, shall be utterly void and of
none effect.

CHEAT, in law, is one who defrauds,
or endeavours to defraud another of his
known right, by means of some artful
device, contrary to the plain rules of com-
mon honesty. By the 30 Geo. II. all per-
sons, who, knowingly or designedly, by
false pretence or pretences, shall obtain
from any person, money, goods, wares,
or merchandises, with intent to cheat or
defraud any person of the same, or shall
knowingly tender or deliverany letter or
writing, with or without a name sub-
scribed thereto, or signed with a fictitious
name, threatening to accuse any person
of a crime punishable by law with death,

transportation, pillory, or other infamous
punishment, with 'intent to extort from
him any money, or other goods, shall be
deemed offenders against, law and the
public peace ; and the court,before whom
any such offender shall be tried, shall, on
conviction, order him to be fined and im-
prisoned, or be put in the pillory, or pub-
licly whipped, or to be transported for se-
ven years.

CHECK, or CHECK roll, a roll or book,
wherein is contained the names of such
persons as are attendants and in pay to
the King, or other great personages, as
their household servants.

CHECKS, or drafts on bankers, are in-
struments, by means of which a creditor
may assign to a third person, not, origi-
nally party to the contract, the legal as
well as equitable interest in a debt raised
by it, so as to vest in such an assignee a
right cf action against the original debtor.
These instruments are uniformly made
payable to bearer, which constitutes a
characteristic difference between them
and bills of exchange ; and the legislature
has considered them in amore favourable
point of vie w,by exempting them from the
stamp duties. They are equally nego-
tiable with bills. When given in pay-
ment, they are considered as cash ; and,
it is said, may be declared upon as a bill
of exchange ; and the moment this re-
semblance begins, thev are governed by
the same principles of law as bills of ex-
change. Checks payable on demand, or
when no time of payment is expressed,
are payable on presentment, without any
indulgence or clays of grace; but the pre-
sentment should be made within a rea-
sonable time after the receipt, otherwise
the party upon whom the check is drawn
will not be responsible, and the person
from whom the holder received it will be
discharged. Therefore, where circum-
stances will allow of it, it is advisable for
the holder of a check to present it on the
same day it is received.

CHECKY, in heraldry, is when the
shield, or a part thereof, as a bordure,
&c. is chequered, or divided into che-
quers or squares, in the manner of a
chess-board.

CHEEK, in anatomy, that part of the
face situated below the eyes, on each side.
See AXATOMY.

CHEEKS, among mechanics, are a'most
all those pieces of their machines ?n.f ,n-
struments that are double, and perfectly
alike ; as the cheeks of a mortur uh'ch
are made of strong' wooden phi ikSj of
a semicircular form, bound with ihick

CHE

plates of iron, and fixed to the bed with
four bolts; these cheeks rise on each side
the mortar, and serve to keep it at what
elevation is given it : the cheeks of a
printing-press arc its two principal pieces
placed perpendicular and parallel to each
other, and serving to. sustain the three
sommers, &c.

CHEEKS, in ship-building, two pieces
of timber, fitted on each side of the mast,
at the top. serving to strengthen the mast
there, and having holes in them, called
hounds, through which the ties run to
hoist the yards

CHEESE is made from the curd formed
by mixing rennet with milk, the quality
of the cheese depending on that of the
milk used on the occasion. Various pro-
cesses'are recommended, but to detail
them would be a voluminous task; we
shall, however, state, in as few words as
the subject will admit, how cheese is
usually made. The milk being previ-
ously warmed, is turned, by the mixture
of rennet, into an apparently solid mass.
This being cut across with a brass knife,
(for iron is supposed by many to give a
bad flavour,) occasions the curd to sepa-
rate from the whey : the latter is given
to pigs, or is sold as a beverage, while
the former is put into a press made for.
the purpose, and all the whey is com-
pletely separated, falling through holes
in the bottom of the press ; while the
curd is kept in by a coarse kind of 'cloth
made principally "for that purpose. The
curd must be repeatedly cut into minute
squares, and be as. often subjected to the
press. When mixed for the last time,
salt is added: and if any colour is to be
given, a small quantity of annatto, or
other colouring mutter, is put in ; though
this is sometimes done in the early stages
of the manufacture. Many put in sage-
leaves, or mix plain and various-coloured
curds together, according to fancy ; the
goodness of the cheese will, however, al-
ways depend on the richness of the milk.
When the cheese has been kept a proper
time in the mould and \villbearhandling,
it is taken out, and put on a shelf; care-
fully turning it every day, so that it may
be dried alike ; it is next rubbed with
green nettles, &c. and by some with salt,
under the opinion that these help to ripen
it. Every county has some favourite re-
cipe for the operation, and all alike claim
the palm of pre-eminence : we may, per-
haps, be correct in saying, that in each
there are both excellent and execrable
cheeses made. Cheshire, Gloucester,
Wiltshire, and Stilton, seem to be the

most approved, while, on the other hand,
that made in Suffolk, being usually from
skimmed or flitted milk, and, conse-
quently, deprived of all the butyrous
part, is considered proverbially poor.

As an article of diet, cheese cannot, on
the whole, be accounted nourishing : that
which is old, crumbling, and rich, is as-
suredly a powerful aid to digestion, and
has been given with great success in cases
where children have ate incautiously of
crude fruits ; but such as is dry, and of
a sour taste, may be justly ranked among
the minor poisons. The rennet which is
used for turning the milk is nothing more
than the stomach of a young calf, or of a
pig, in which the gastric juices are pre-
served, by means of a handful or two of
salt. A very small quantity of this pre-
paration will suffice to many gallons of
milk ; and as the rennet-bag, as it is
called, may be emptied, it may be once
or twice replenished, though the liquor
will not be so strong. Some dry the
rennet-bag, after having been thus used,
and throw a piece in to turn the milk.
See MILK.

CHE1RANTHUS, in botany, a genus
of the Tetradynamia Siliquosa class and
order. Natural order of Siliquosse jCruci-
formes. Essential character : germ with
a glandulous toothlet on each side ; calyx
closed, with two leaflets, gibbous at the
base ; seeds flat. There are twenty-two
species, of which C. cheiri, common wall-
flower, is about a foot high, with a woody
stem ; on walls it is seldom more than
eight inches, with very tongh roots and
firm stalks ; the leaves short and sharp-
pointed ; the flowers are well known,
being one of those which have been culti-
vated for their fragrancy time immemo-
rial in our gardens. C. incanus, stock
gilliflower, is nearly the same height,
shrubby, with spear-shaped leaves, which
are frequently waved on their edges, and
turn downward at the extremity ; the
side branches are each terminated by a
loose spike of flowers, each having a
woolly calyx, and four large roundish pe-
tals, indented at the end. These usually
appear in May and June. The flowers of
this sort vary in their colour ; some are
pale, and others of a deep red ; the latter
are generally most esteemed. If the seed
be well chosen, frequently three parts in
four of the plants will be doubled. C. an-
nuus, annual stock gilliflower, or ten-
week stock, is two feet high, with a
round, smooth, stalk, dividing into many
branches at top. The flowers are pro-
duced in loose spikes at the ends of the

CHE

€HE

branches, and are placed alternately ; the
calyx is large, erect, and slightly cut into
several acute parts at the top ; the pe.als
are large and heait-shaped. Of this sort
there are, the red, purple, wh.te, and
striped ; which are great ornaments in
the borders of the flower garden in au-
tumn. •

CHELTDONIUM, in botany, a genus
of the polyandria Monogynia class and
order. Natural order of Rhoeadese. Es-
sential character : corolla four-petalled ;
calyx two-leaved ; silique one-celled, li-
near. There arefhe species, of which
C majus, common or great celandine, is
from a foot to eighteen inches in height ;
cylindric, and a little hairy. The juice
of the whole plant is saffron-coloured.
It approaches to the class Tetradynamia
in the cruciform shape of the corolla, and
its silique, which, however, differs essen-
tially in being one-celled. It is common
in hedges, shady places, and uncultivated
grounds, flowering from May to July.
This species is naturalized in the United
States, and its yellow proper .juice is es-
teemed by the vulgar as efficacious in
curing warts.

CHELONE, in botany, a genus of the
Didynamia Angiospermia class and or-
der. Natural order of Personatae. Big-
nonix, Jussieu. Essential character : ca-
lyx five-parted ; rudiment of a fifth fila-
ment between the upper stamens , cap-
sule two-celled. There are five species,
of which two, viz. C. g'labra, white che-
lone, and C. obliqua, or rose-coloured
snake head, grow naturally in most parts
of North America. These species are
about two feet high, with two leaves at
each joint, 'standing opposite, wrthout
foot stalks. The flowers grow in a close
spike at the end of the stalk, and have
but one petal, which is tubular, and nar-
row at the bottom, something like the
fox-glove flower.

CHELSEA .hospital, a noble edifice,
which was built by Charles II. on his re-
storation, and afterwards improved by
his successor James II. Non-commis-
sioned officers and private men, who
have been wounded or maimed in the
service, are entitled to the benefit of this
hospital. There are in and out-pension-
ers belonging to the establishment, and
the provisions of it extend to the militia
under the following restrictions ; scr-
jeants who have served fifteen years,
and corporals or drummers who have
served twenty, may be recommended to
the bounty. Sergeants on the establish-
ment may likewise receive that allow-
ance, with their pay in the militia. Rut

Serjeants, who have been appointed sub-
sequent 'o the passing of the 26th of.
George IFI. are not entitled to it under
twenty years' service.

CHEMISTRY. AH the changes that
take place in bodies, — whether by the
operation of powers not under the di-
rection of man, which are called natural
phenomena ; or of the same powers, mo-
dified in their direction by the exercise
of our voluntary exertions, which con-
stitute the processes of art, — are effected
by motion. When the bodies from their
size and distance from each other can be
separately distinguished by our senses,
the effects are referred to the division of
philosophical science called mechanics :
but when the minuteness of the bodies
themselves, and of the spaces to which
the individual actions are confined, are
such that we cannot view and contem-
plate them separately, but are under the
necessity of inferring the nature and
causes of their motions from general re-
sults or phenomena, the changes are re-
ferrable to chemistry.

Chemistry, therefore, as a science,
teaches us to estimate and account for the
changes produced in bodies by motions
of their parts, which are too minute to
affect the senses individually : as an art,
its practice consists in placing or apply-
ing bodies, with regard to each other, in
such situations as are adapted to produce
those changes.

In our investigation of the results of
chemistry, we find ourselves, from the
regular connection of the facts, enabled
to fortel what will happen to certain bo-
dies in certain circumstances; and the
rules by which, from experience, we are
capable of doing so, are called laws of
nature, if they relate to bodies in gene-
ral ; but when they relate to particular
descriptions of bodies, we form our ex-
pressions so as to refer the effects to the
bodies themselves, under the name of
qualities or properties. The discovery
of these laws and properties must, in the
first instances, be effected from the ob-
servation of natural events, and after-
wards by instituting experiments for the
express purpose of manifesting them. In
these experiments we may either sepa-
rate compounded bodies into their sim-
pler parts, which is called analysis ; or we
may unite simple parts so as to form a
compound body, which is called syn-
thesis. And our reasonings concerning
these facts will have a correspondent de-
• nomination. When we describe and ex-
plain the process of analysis, by which
general results are deduced by separat-

CHEMISTRY.

ing effects from each other, the opera-
tion of the mind is distinguished by the
same name ; but when, from the general
results, we show in what manner particu-
lar events are produced by combining
bodies together, the method is distin-
guished by the term synthesis.

The synthetical method of teaching is
undoubtedly the most luminous and
clear, where the first principles or simple
elements of our knowledge are known
or admitted, as is the case in geometry.
But in chemistry this method of teaching
cannot, from our imperfect knowledge
of the facts, be generally adopted, with-
out admitting the simplicity of a variety
of substances, concerning which there is
just reason to doubt.

It is true, indeed, that such admissions
are generally made with a previous notice
or reservation of this uncertainty. But
by the constant use of the supposed facts,
along with others which are better estab-
lished, the mind becomes habituated to
mix hypothesis with facts ; and the ima-
ginary beauty of connected science must
from time to time be destroyed by the ap-
pearance of new truths. The revolutions
of chemical science have amply shown
this; and the numerous imperfections
which still remain, have left considerable
latitude for the arrange ment'of materials
in a system of chemistry. If the theory
were in its commencement, a treatise on
chemistry would be little more than a
collection of receipts for processes ; and
even in the present state of the science,
different authors of credit and respecta-
bility greatly differ in the disposal of
their subjects. Operative chemistry
usually precedes the theory in the ear-
lier works. Some writers treat of com-
pound bodies, and deduce their princi-
ples or component parts in the way of
analysis : while others begin with the
habitudes or powers by which the seve-
ral changes are effected. But it must be
confessed, nowithstanding the magni-
tude of the discoveries which have been
really made, and the elevated preten-
sions of a few theorists, that the practical
science is still in its infancy. Every one
of the phenomena is sufficiently compli-
cated as to be referrible to various topics
of consideration; and to which of these
in a general way our attention shall be
first directed, is in many cases a matter of
indifference. It appears to us that the
advantages of treating the subjects in a
popular way, by first attending to the
general properties and habitudes of bo-
dies, and the methods of operating upon

them, and from thence proceeding to
the different classes of bodies, are such
as entitle this method to a preference
before other arrangements, which afford
a greater appearance of synthetical or-
der

When we have simplified our notions
of the causes of change which happen to
bodies under the distinction or division
of chemistry, we must resolve them into
two, namely, heat and attraction. Daily
experience shows us that bodies may be
more or less heated, and also that they
adhere to each other. We are in truth
unable to proceed farther in our abstrac-
tions. The causes of those well known
effects have not yet been develoved by
the manifestation of any more simple
facts upon which they may depend. We
can only observe the laws, according to
which these powers have been found to
act, and make our classification of the
phenomena ; and as it is of some utility,
in directing our future researches, to
make conjectures by analogy, it may also
be permitted to speculate upon the
causes of these primary effects, provided
it be done with caution, and without that
bigotry, which even in systems of philo-
sophy has so frequently established the
results of error.

Besides the effects of heat and attrac-
tion, we find that bodies are changed and
modified by light, electricity, galvanism,
and magnetism ; the three last of which
are accompanied by attraction, or repul-
sion. But as these are much less gene-
rally applicable in operative chemistry
than the powers first mentioned, and as
it seems likely that future discoveries
may lead to some intimate relation, or
perhaps show the identity of the cause
of heat, light, and the other affections of
matter, which have here engaged our at-
tention, it is unnecessary to enlarge upon
these in the present article.

The word attraction denotes the unex-
plained tendency which bodies have to
move to each other. We observe it act-
ing at a distance in the fall of bodies on
the surface of the earth, and in the mo-
tions of the heavenly bodies, as well as in
such as are affected by electricity, gal-
vanism, er magnetism ; and in the cohe-
sion which gives solidity, or, more pro-
perly, rigidity, to bodies, as well as in
those effects wherein the parts of differ-
ent bodies unite to form new compounds,
we deduce its effects from motions or ac-
tions, which cannot be separately distin-
guished. And these differences, though
they cannot be shown to arise from one

CHEMISTRY.

and the same power, or from energies
originally dissimilar, require, at least for
the purposes of language, to be treated
apart from each other. Chemistry seems
to have little to do with the perceptible
attractions : it is principally confined
to the state of bodies, as it relates to
the cohesion and the combination of their
parts. •

Heat, or rather temperature, is a well
known modification of bodies, by which
they produce a peculiar sensation, dis-
tinguished by the same word. Its laws
have been very successfully investigated
by our contemporaries ; for which see CA-
LORIC, HEAT, and COMBUSTION. The ope-
rative chemist considers it as the means
of converting solid bodies into dense
fluids, and dense fluids into elastic fluids,
called gas or vapour, while compound bo-
dies may have their parts separated from
each other by this treatment.

When bodies of different kinds are
brought into contact, they produce very
little of the change called chemical,
while they continue in the solid state.
Mechanical trituration will forward their
mutual action, by multiplying the sur-
faces of contact ; but still the masses con-
tinue too large to be moved amongst
each other by the peculiar attractions
they may be capable of exerting. It has
been considered as an axiom in chemis-
try, that bodies do not act on each other,
unless one or both be in the fluid state ;
and though this is not strictly and uni-
versally true, yet it is requisite for almost
every operation of chemistry, that this
condition, either of dense or of elastic
fluidity, should obtain. The facility with
which the parts of fluids move amongst
each other is, no doubt, the principal
cause of this increased effect.

The practical part of chemistry may be
therefore said to consist almost entirely
in separating or changing the order of
the parts of bodies by heat, or of placing
bodies in such situations with regard to
each other, as that, with the assistance
of heat, if needful to produce fluidity ;
changes or separations of the same kind
may take place among their parts. The
actions of electricity, galvanism, and
light, will probably be soon combined
among the leading resources of chemis-
try.

No change could take place by this or
any other treatment, if the attractions of
the parts of bodies to each other were all
perfectly the same. It is manifest from
the facts, that the attractions between
some bodies is stronger than between
others, and from this remarkable variety

in the habitudes of bodies, the attractions
of chemistry have been called elective
attractions.

A distinction has been made between
those processes in which water is present,
and those in which the requisite fluidity
is produced by strong heat. The first me-
thod is called the humid way, and the
other the dry way.

The practice of chemistry requires, in
most cases of solid bodies, previous to
the application of heat, or of one body
to another, for the exercise of the attrac-
tions, that some mechanical means should
be taken to divide their parts from each
other. These are, 1, chopping or cut-
ting ; 2, rasping, filing, or shaving ; 3,
pulverizing or grinding ; 4, granulation,
as when shot is formed by pouring lead
into water, or a powder of the metal is ob-
tained by shaking it in a box, in the fus-
ed state, till it congeals ; 5, elutriation,
or washing, to separate the finer or light-
er parts of bodies from the coarser or
larger, as when earthy matters are wash-
ed from the heavier metallic ones, or
when a fine powder, such as that of
pounded emery, is suspended by agita-
tion in water, which is decanted off, and
then set to subside, while the coarserpar-
ticles, which settle immediately, are left
behind ; 6, hammering, or forging, as in
the making of tin foil, or leaf gold, or in the
extension of other metals, whether hot
or cold ; 7, laminating, as when the metals
are passed between steel rollers, or
when wax is poured upon a wooden cy-
linder, turned round in cold water; and,
8, wire drawing, as when the metals are
drawn through a hole in a plate to make
wire, or forced through an engine,
such as that employed for glazier's lead,
&c.

Bodies are distinguished, with regard
to heat, into fixed, volatile, and refrac-
tory. The first can scarcely, if at all, be
evaporated ; the second are easily raised
or driven off; and the third undergo no
change.

The simple application of heat is dis-
tinguished by various terms, according to
the nature of the operation, or of the ef-
fects produced. These are, 1, roasting,
which consists in exposing minerals to an
open fire, to drive off their volatile con-
tents; 2, calcination is the exposure of a
body to strong heat, in an open vessel,
till it undergoes no farther change. This
word, which was formerly used in a ge-
neral way, is now confined to earths and
some of the salts, and is indeed seldom
used; 3, oxydatiou is the like process
with metallic bodies : 4, fusion, or melt-

CHEMISTRY.

ing, is the production of the state of
dense fluidity ; 5, cementation is a pro-
cess, wherein solid bodies of different
kinds, one or more of them being- in pow-
der, are exposed to heat in a vessel near-
ly closed, with the intention that the more
t volatile parts of the one may unite with
the other, or its fixed parts ; 6, eliqua-
tion is the exposure of a compound body,
usually metallic, to heat, sufficient to
fuse one of its ingredients, which runs
out, and leaves the other solid and po-
rous; 7, digestion consists in keeping bo-
dies for a considerable time immersed in
a fluid more or less heated, in order to
effect some combination between them ;
8, evaporation is the dissipation of a fluid
by heat ; 9, concentration consists in di-
minishing the proportion of water in any
solution of saline matter, either by heat-
ing it, or by freezing the surplus water
and taking out the ice ; 10, when evapo-
ration is performed in any apparatus of
vessels, partly or quite closed, and the
vapours, after being raised by heat in one
part or vessel, are received in another
sufficiently cold to condense them into
the fluid state, this process is called dis-
tillation; 11, when a fluid obtained by
distillation is again distilled, in order to
obtain the most volatile part of the first
product, this last part is said to be recti-
fied, and the process is called rectifica-
tion. This term has become nearly ob
solete in scientific description, but is still
retained in the arts; 12, there are many
products of evaporation, which congeal,
or become solid, at a temperature much
higher than that of the atmosphere, and
are not, therefore, obtained in the fluid,
but the solid state. These usually ad-
here in the form of crystals to the upper
part of the apparatus, and on this account,
as well as because the operation does not
in general require the same kind of ves-
sel, it is distinguished by the name of su-
blimation, and the products themselves
are called sublimates, and in some in-
stances flowers ; but these two last terms
are more particularly confined to the
arts. Other terms are also used, such as
fusible, evaporable, &c. but their sense is
manifest.

For the apparatus used in these and
the other operations of chemistry, see
LABORATORY.

The consideration of what happens to
the parts of bodies, in consequence of
their elective attractions, constitutes the
most difficult part of the science, whe-
ther the mind be employed in developing
the facts, or in deducing the general
theory which may be indicated from

them. It is, therefore, necessary to con-
sider them with some attention, and in a
regular manner.

The adhesion of parts, considered to
be of the same kind, is called lurivrega-
tion. Thus a number of piec. s o*-' ,«lass
melted together form an aggregate : and
the smallest parts into which an aggre-
gate can be imagined to be divided, so
as not to change its nature, are called in-
tegrant parts; so that the integrant
parts of glass are themselves glass. But
when the body is known to be made up
of parts of different kinds or nature, and
it is considered with regard to these, the
body is called a compoond, or combina-
tion, and the parts are called component
parts or principles. In this manner
glass is a compound of the earth called
silex. and a salt called alkali, combined
together at a strong heat: and we may
imagine, that if there were any means
by which glass could be reduced, first
to its integrant parts, and the division
could be carried farther, the parts would
then be no longer integrant and glass,
but would become divided into compo-
nent parts, namely, earth, and alkali.
Bodies are also considered in a wide
manner by the name of mixtures, when
small aggregates of different kinds are
united, as in a variety of minerals, where
the parts are frequently distinguishable
by the senses : and in the arts we have
sand and lime made into mortar by mix-
ture, or sand, clay, and other earths,
made into pottery, and hardened by a
moderate fire ; but these by a stronger
heat may be made to combine into glass,
and are then no longer mixtures, but com-
pounds.

The early chemists were led into a sup-
position, that the bodies they were un-
able to analyze were simple, and they
distinguished them by the name of ele-
ments. It is probable that the great va-
riety of bodies around us are formed by
combination, out of a few simple princi-
ples, or perhaps out of one single ele-
ment, variously combined as to figure and
position of parts ; but it*is useless and un-
profitable to speculate on probabilities,
which experiment can never verify. Mo-
dern chemists, very properly, consider
those bodies as simple, which have not
yet been decomposed ; but this is merely
with relation to the present state of
our knowledge, and for the sake of ar-
rangement and induction. They do not
lose sight of the necessity of instituting
experiments for their further analysis;
and the great discoveries which have

CHEMISTRY.

done honour to our own times, are a
proof of their diligence and sagacity.

We do not know of any means of as-
certaining1, by experiment, whether com-
pound bodies do enter as principles into
other bodies still more compounded ; or
whether in bodies of three or more prin-
ciples, all the simple particles do dis-
pose themselves without any dependance
on the order of time, according to which
they may have been put together. It is
probable that the former is the case, so
that we may hereafter be enabled to de-
signate primary principles, or bodies not
yet decomposed ; secondary principles,
or bodies of two primary principles,
which nevertheless can enter into com-
bination, or be disengaged without sepa-
ration from each other ; ternary princi-
ples, &c. In this manner sulphur, by
combining with oxygen and water, will
form sulphuric acid, and this acid may be
combined with a metal, so as to form a
salt capable of giving out its acid again by
heat. Our systematic books are written
according to the supposition of seconda-
ry and more complicated principles ; but
the facts do not indisputably prove their
existence.

When two bodies in the solid state
which are disposed to combine are brought
into contact, the combination will begin
at the place where they touch; and if the
compound be of such a nature, as that its
freezing point (see CAIORTC) is lower
than the common temperature of the bo-
dies, it will be fluid, and the combination
may proceed to the other parts of each,
till the whole shall have united. Thus
snow and salt will form a fluid brine, if
the temperature be higher than 6° be-
low the commencement of Fahrenheit's
scale.

If a solid be united with and suspend-
ed in a fluid, the former is said to be
dissolved, or in solution, and tlie fluid is
called a solvent. In this manner water
dissolves sugar or salt. Fluids in gene-
ral dissolves greater quantities the higher
the temperature, probably from the fluid
state being promoted by heat.

Some substances unite in all propor-
tions, such as most acids in water ; but
others have a limit ; as, for example,
water will dissolve only one-fourth of its
weight of common salt. It is then said to
be saturated. But chemists use the word
saturation in anothersense. When two
principles, as, for instance, an acid and an
alkali, are combined, the properties of
each disappear when a due proportion
of each is present ; but if either of the

VOL. in.

principles exceed that proportion, the
predominating property will be that of the
principle which is in excess In these
cases, the principles are said to be satu-
rated when the properties are most com-
pletely balanced ; but in the other cases;
the principle which is defective in quan-
tity is said to be super-saturated, or over
saturated, and the other principle which
is in excess, is said to be under-saturated:
acids united with alkalies manifest these
cases very strikingly.

In the consideration of the phenomena
of chemical or elective attraction between
the principles of bodies, it will be very
difficult to select instances for illustra-
tion, which shall be simple, either as to
the principles or the effects, because in
almost every case there is a degree of com-
plexity which obtains in nature ; and even
where we suppose a great simplicity of
principles, they may hereafter be dis-
covered to be compound. But the doc-
trine will be understood, and fixed in
the memory, by the examples to be
brought; in the same manner as when
diagrams are used by geometricians-,
though the actual figures cannot strictly
agree with their hypotheses or postu-
lates.

1. The mutual action of two bodies ex-
hibits the phenomena of simple elective
attraction and rejection : when two prin-
ciples are presented to each other, the)
may either combine or reject each other.
Thus water combines with and dissolves
gum, but rejects camphor ; and alcohol
combines with and dissolves camphor,
but rejects gum.

It is probable, that all simple bodies, if
insulated, would combine together, and
that the phenomenon of rejection, when
it takes place, is an effect of some of the
compound elective attractions,uponwhich
we shall presently speak.

When a body is suspended to satura-
tion in a solvent, no more can be taken
up or supported, because the cohesive
attraction, or that of the parts of the
body to each other, is stronger than
that of the fluid to the same; and it is
found that the power of the solvent i«
greater the less it is charged, until it
ceases at the point of saturation. Elas-
ticity, or the energies by which bodies
are converted into gas or vapour, is like-
wise an opponent to solution or combina-
tion, and gives a point of saturation
which may be varied, by preventing or
impeding the assumption of the elastic
state.

3. Wrhen three bodies or principles are
X

CHEMISTRY.

presented to each other in succession, we
may conceive a variety of results, all
which appear to take place in nature.
Thus (a) they may not perceptibly unite,
or (6) two may unite, a«cl the third have
no action,either upon them singly or when
in their combination ; or (c) all three may
unite, from attractions exerted between
each singly upon the others, and form a
triple compound ; or (</) two of them may
have no attraction for each other, but be-
ing both capable of combining with a
third, this last may be the instrument of
union between the two, and a triple com-
pound will be thus formed. In this case,
the effect is said to be performed by in-
termediate attraction, and the attracting
body is called a medium. Thus oil and
water will not unite, but either of them
will unite with an alkali ; and if this last
be uni.ed \sith oil, it forms soap, which
can be united with water. The alkali is
the medinm ; or (e) two principles which
attract each other may neither of them be
capable of direct or ready union with a
third ; but when the two former shall be
actually combined together.the compound
shall attract and combine with the third
body, and form a triple compound. This
new power is culled resulting attraction.
Thus neither sulphur nor potash have
any sensible action upon gold; but when
they are fused together, they combine
with that metal. Most of the effects of
resulting attraction are consequences of
the change of state of bodies, particularly
to that of fluidity ; and the effects of this
attraction and that by a medium often ex-
ist in the same case ; or (/) if we sup-
pose three principles to be in such cir-
cumstances of aggregation or tempera-
ture, as to have no perceptible disposition
to unite in pairs, but that the resulting at-
traction of a compound of two of them,
if united, would then act upon the third,
and produce a triple combination, it may
happen that this resulting attraction,
which seems to be only in prospect, shall
have power to complete the triple com-
pound; and the modification is called
disposing attraction. Thus vinegar has
no perceptible action upon copper, but it
can dissolve the compound of copper and
oxygcMi, called the oxide of copper : nei-
ther vinegar nor copper have any dispo-
sition to take oxygen from its elastic state
in the atmosphere, so that copper and vi-
negar may be kept together without solu-
tion in a closed vessel : but if the air be
admitted, the presence of the vinegar will
dispose the copper to take oxygen and
form au oxide, and with tiiis combination

the vinegar will unite. There is much
convenience in the term, disposing attrac-
tion, as used to express this phenomenon,
though it must be confessed that tlm-
prospective disposition, ascribed to un-
conscious beings, seems to produce some
confusion in the mind. It may therefore
be proper to notice-, that the case seems to
belong to disposing1 attraction, and may
be thus hypothetically explained. Copper,
and several other metals, which attract
oxygen from the air, become covered with
a thin oxide or rust, which prevents any
farther access of that fluid,and consequent -
ly it rusts no farther, unless the thin coat
of oxide be scraped off and a new surface
exposed; and if this were continued to be
done, all the copper would be gradually
oxided. Now the vinegar, by the condition
of our case, does this, and the copper is
gradually and totally dissolved ; not, as it
appears, because the copper and oxygen
are disposed to unite by a third power,
which, as it were, waits for them, but
because this power removes an impedi-
ment, which would impede their progres-
sive union.

(_§•) The case of attraction, which has
most particularly engaged the attention of
chemistry, is that, where two principles
being combined are separated from each
other by the addition of a third, which
combines with one of them. This has,
perhaps improperly, been called simple
elective attraction, and by others precipi-
tating attraction: its principal effects or
distinguishing character would, it seems,
be better designated by the term de-
composing attraction. Thus, if sulphuric
acid and magnesia be combined in the salt
called sulphate of magnesia (dissolved in
water) and potash be added, the acid will
unite with this last, and the magnesia will
be separated and fall down. It was for
a long time thought that these combi-
nations and separations were complete
and entire ; but they appear in every in-
stance to form cases of the intermedi-
ate or resulting attractions, wherein the
proportions of the soluble and insoluble
parts are extremely different, and the de-
grees of saturation often modify the re-
sults. For the body separated has al-
ways a small proportion of the two
others, and the new compound usually
suspended is not binary, but triple at
least; and the proportions and effects
are more or less altered by the quantity
of solvent present, and the aptitude of
the new Combinations to take the solid,
fluid, or elastic states.

Tables of separation or decomposi

CHEMISTRY.

tXonhave been called tables of simple elec-
tive attraction. They are usually drawn up
to express effects in the humid way with
moderate proportions of water at the mid-
dle atmospheric temperature ; and in the
dry way by the operation of fire acting1
up'on the containing vessels, to raise their
temperature. From the reasons just
mentioned, they cannot be admitted as
denoting invariable effects, but they are
nevertheless useful, provided the modifi-
cations of circumstances be attended to
in our general reasoning. See ELECTIVE
ATTRACTION.

3. In our present discussion it was not
practicable, from the nature of the sub-
ject to avoid presenting facts for illus-
tration, in which more than three princi-
ples were concerned; though the doc-
trines to be elucidated supposed no more
than that number to be present. This
supposition can admit only of one combi-
natio! , either of two or of three princi-
ples ; but in the complex effects of che-
mical attraction, four or more bodies may
be treated of as forming distinct and se-
parate combinations ; and these com-
pounds being presented to each other,
may be affected by all the habitudes and
circumstances upon which we have so
long dwelled, besides such others as
arise from their greater complexity.
These cannot be' here fully treated. It
will be sufficient at present to overlook
those effects wherein compounds of many
principles may be formed, or in which
the intermediate, or resulting, or dis-
posing attractions may operate, and re-
gard only the cases in which two binary
compounds, being presented to each
other, do either remain unaltered, or else
exchange their principles so as to form
two other binary compounds. A few
years ago this was thought to compre-
hend the greatest part of the doctrine of
chemical attractions ; but, as practical
science advances, the supposed simplici-
ty of the facts becomes less than before.

These phenomena, afforded by two bi-
nary compounds, have been classed un-
der the denomination of effects of dou-
ble elective attraction. These facts may
be considered with regard to the whole
force of the attractions that tend to re-
tain the original compounds, which have
been called quiescent attractions, and the
whole force of the attractions that tend
to produce two new binary compounds,
which have been called divellent attrac-
tions. If the former be the greatest, the
change will not take place ; but if the
latter exceed, it will. Thus, if to the

s,ulphate of potash lime be presented, the
sulphuric acid being more strongly at-
tracted by potash than by lime, no de-
composition will ensue; but if muriate
of lime be presented to the sulphate of
potash, the lime will not only attract the
sulphuric acid, but the muriatic, acid
will attract the potash ; and the sum of
the divellent attractions, namely, of the
lime to the sulphuric acid, of the muri-
atic acid to the potash, being greater
than the sum of the original or quiescent
attractions; namely, of the sulphuric
acid to the potash, and of the muriatic
acid to the lime ; two new compounds,
namely, sulphate of lime and muriate of
potash, will be formed. See ELECTIVE
ATTRACTION.

The most essential difference between
the complicated cases of attraction here
described, and those treated of just be-
fore, is, that the principles in these last
are either saturated, or nearly so, when
presented to each other ; and from this
difference, and the number of principles,
it is, that the effect of solvents, the force
of cohesion and of elasticity, as well as
of temperature, and other circumstances,
act with more effect than in the simpler
cases.

Whenever the cohesive attraction ope-
rates so as to form solid aggregates,
whether by the congelation of fused bo-
dies by cooling, or the deposition of bo-
dies from their solvents, the aggregates,
if not disturbed by too rapid condensa-
tion, or by other causes, have the forrn
of solids bounded by flat surfaces, meet-
ing each other in certain definite angles.
These solids are called crystals. The
property of crystallizing seems to be a
natural consequence of the resulting at-
tractions. For if a binary compound be
attracted by any other principle or com-
pound, and the time and circumstances
allow the particles to turn round, it ap-
pears obvious that the appulse and ad-
hesion will be made by such sides of the
bodies as'are occupied by particles most
strongly attractive of each other ; and
this regularity of opposition must pro-
duce regularity of figure. See CRYSTAL-
LIZATION.

After this general statement of the
means and agents of chemistry, it re-
mains only for us, in this general article,
to give an outline of the different sub-
stances or principles upon which the pro-
cesses of nature and art are performed,,
and upon which the articles devoted to-
each may be consulted.

CHEMISTRY.

CHEMICAL ARRAXGZMENT OF BODIES.

I. Substances not yet decomposed, called
simple principles.

1. Principles of doubtful existence.
These are (a) heat, (6) light, and the
causes of (c) galvanic, (</) electric, and
(e) magnetic phenomena. These ener-
gies cannot be confined in vessels ; they
are not measurable by figured extension
or by gravity; we know nothing of their
compounds; and they accompany and
are excitable in other bodies by manipu-
lation : from which, and other reasons,
they have been thought to be modes,
properties, or occasional habitudes of
bodies. But, on the other hand, they
possess so many distinctive characters,
thsit a large class of philosophers ascribe
them to certain peculiar fluids, or to one
common fluid. See ETHER.

2. Simple principles, which have been
exhibited only in the gaseous form, un-
less in combination These are (a) oxy-
gen, (6; hydrogen, (c) azote, or nitrogen.
The character here assumed for classifi-
cation might seem insufficient, as being
merely relative to our present means of
attempting to condense these bodies, if
there were not some strong distinctive
circumstances belonging to them. In
particular, oxygen with hydrogen forms
wa er, of which an immense ocean co-
vers two-thirds of the surface of our
planet ; and oxygen with nitrogen forms
the air of that atmosphere which sur-
rounds us on all sides to the height of
many miles, and would, if it could be
compressed to the density of common
earth, cover all the land and sea to the
depth of at least fifteen feet: and (d)
the unknown base of muriatic acid
ought probably to be admitted in this
place.

3. Simple principles, not combustible.
These are (a) earths, distinguished by a
•want of fusibility, volatility, and solubi-
lity in water, which in most species is
almost total. There are nine at present
known ; namely, silex, alumina, lime,
magnesia, barytes, strontites, zircon, it-
tria, glucine : and (6) alkalies, which are
fusible, volatile by a red heat, and very
soluble in water: three are known : pot-
ash, soda, and ammonia.

The recent decomposition of the two
former alkalies (see ALKAU,) and the
well known composition of the latter,
must with propriety exclude them from
their present situation : but they are re-
fained in this class of ineombustibtes Un-

til the confirmation and developement of
those facts shall have perfectly settled
their place.

4. Simple principles, conbustible. and
in some aggregations transparent. These
are, (a) diamond, or carbon ; (£) sul-
phur; and (c) phosphorus The two
latter of these combine readily, and burn
with the oxygen of the atmosphere; the
latter, in various of its compounds and
species,appears to be impeded in its com-
bustion by khe force of cohesion in the ag-
gregate. "

5. Simple principles,combustible,opaque
in every state of solid aggregation, and
peculiarly brilliant by reflection; metals.
Of these, 28 are at present known. 1.
Gold; 2. Platina; 3. Silver; 4. Mercury;
5. fridmm; 6. Osmium ; 7. Rhodium; 8.
Palladium; 9. Copper; 10. Iron; 11.
Lead; 12. Tin ; 13. Zinc; 14. Bismuth;
15. Antimony; 16. Nickel; 17. Cobalt;
18. Manganese ; 19. Arsenic ; 20. Tellu-
rium ; 21. Chrome ; 22. Molybdena; 23.
Tunsten ; 24. Titanium ; 25. Uranium j
26. Columbium; 27. Tantalium ; 28. Ce-
rium.

II. Primary compounds, or combination*
of two simple principles.

1. Water, composed of oxygen and
hydrogen.

2. Ammonia ; composed of hydrogen
and azote. And in this place we may
expect hereafter to place the other alka-
lies and earths.

3. Oxides ; composed of combustible
principles, particularly metals, combined
with oxygen. These are, (a) oxides of
carbon ; as plumbago, common char-
coal, carbonic oxide of azote — of sul-
phur,— of phosphorus; and (6) of the
metals.

4. Acids; combustibles, or metals
combined with a larger portion of oxy-
gen than exists in their oxides. The oxy-
genated substance is called the base of
the acid, and there are acids with two,
and perhaps more bases. Rejecting, for
the present, their modifications, arising
from more or less of oxygen, they are,
the sulphuric, nitric, muriatic, phospho-
ric, carbonic, fluoric, boracic, arsenic,
molybdic, chromic, tungstic, columbic,
acetic, benzoic, moroxylic, camphoric,
oxalic, meJlitic, tartaric, citric, sebacic,
saclactic, laccic, malic, suberic, formic,
prussic, gallic.

5. Compounds of two incombustible
principles. These are either earths with
earths, ss in (a) pottery, which for the

CHEMISTRY.

most part is a mixture of aggregates ; —
of earths with alkalies, which form (6)
glass.

6. Compounds of a combustible and an
incombustible principle, (a) Sulphurets
of lime, magnesia, barytes, strontites,
potash, sod-, ammonia; (6) carburet of
alumina ; and (c) phosphurets of lime ;
barytes ; strontites.

7. Compounds of two combustible
principles, (a) Hydrogen with carbon ;
carburetted hydrogen gas ; supercarbu-
retted hydrogen gas, or defiant gas. (6)
Hydrogen with metals ; gasiform sus-
pension of arsenic, zinc, or iron, (c) Car-
bon with sulphur; carburet of sulphur,
(rf) Carbon with iron ; carburet of iron,
or crude iron, (e) Sulphur with hydro-
gen; sulphuretted hydrogen gas. (/)
Sulphur with phosphorus ; sulphuret of
phosphorus. (#) Sulphur with most of the
metals; sulphwrets of each. (A) Phos-
phorus with hydrogen ; phosphorized hy-
drogen gas, phosphuretted hydrogen gas.
(») Phosphurets of carbon, (fc) Phos-
phurets of many of the metals. (/) Me-
tals with metals ; alloys.

III. Secondary compoiquls, or c,omp.ounds
of morp than two simple principles.

Though it cannot yet be determined
whether the binary and other com-
pounds, enumerated in the last section,
may exist as distinct principles in the
combination into which they may enter,
it is nevertheless certain, that, either
from this cause, or from the general pre-
dominance of the attractions to which
they owe their formation, the appear-
ances in composition and decomposition
are such as admit of the affirmative sup-
position in by far the greater number of
cases. This was taken for granted by
the earlier chemists, and habit and con-
venience has continued their language to
the present time.

The binary compounds, taken in the
preceding order, will indicate the follow-
ing secondary combinations.

1. Water combines with a great num-
ber of bodies, and in general maybe se-
parated by evaporation, congelation, or
the effect of elective attraction, without
any change in its own composition. It
has been accordingly considered for a
long time as a simple element, and is
even now very often disregarded in its
agency upon substances which it may
hold in solution, (a) It absorbs very
small portions of oxygen, hydrogen, or
azote, and emits them upon raising the

temperature, or lowering' it to congela-
tion. No proof has been given of its be-
ing capable of uniting in perfect combi-
nation with either of its component parts
beyond the point of saturation, (b) It
dissolves barytes plentifully, and stron-
tites and lime sparingly ; and it very ac-
tively takes up Iarge4 proportions of the
alkalies; but from all these it may be
separated without alteration by mere
heat, (c) Its action upon carbon, sul-
phur, phosphorus, or the metals, is not
sufficient to produce any sensible combi-
nation or decomposition, unless at a very
elevated temperature, such as that of ig-
nition. (</) The oxides are scarcely af-
fected by it ; perhaps only when they ap-
proach the state of acidity, (e) Many of
the acids unite strongly, and in all pro-
portions, with it, and they are all more
or less soluble. (/) The sulphurets and
phosphorets are suspended, and decom-
position of the water takes place by dis-
posing durable affinity, part of the sul-
phur taking oxygen from the water, and
forming acid, which combines with the
earth or alkali; and another part of the
combustible uniting with the hydrogen
of the decomposed water, and forming
hydrosulphuret, pajt of which remains in
solution, and part rises in form of gas.
(j-) The compounds of two or more com-
bustibles are not sensibly acted upon by
water.

2. The alkalies combine (a) with all
the acids, and form compounds called
neutral salts, more or less soluble in
water ; and also (6) with several of the
earths, and (c) of the metallic oxides ;
forming combinations, which, from the
little attention yet paid to them, have re-
ceived no particular denominations.

3. The earths also unite (a) with the
acids, and form salts similar to those
called neutral, and also for the most
part soluble in water. Some of these
likewise unite (6) with each other, and
(c) with metallic oxides, by compound
attraction during precipitation in the hu-
mid way.

4. Acids are the most powerful agents
of combination with alkalies, earths, and
metallic oxides, in the humid way, with
which, as has been observed, they form
salts. The earth silex is not taken up in
any perceptible quantity by any acid but
the fluoric, and this suspends it even iiv
the form of gas.

5. The compound of hydrogen and
sulphur acts in the manner of an acid
upon the alkalies, earths, and metallic
oxides. For which, and the effect of

j^s^^^:

CHE

acjdson the compound combustibles, re-
ference must be made to the respective
articles.

It would carry us too far into the busi-
ness of arrangement in this place, if .we
-were not to adopt the same proceeding
of referring1 to the parts and products of
VEGETABLE and ANIMAL bodies ; we shall
therefore only mention five classes of
the products of organized substances,
which, from their exclusive application
to chemical operations, cannot be passed
without notice. These, in the last re-
sults, ailbrd carbon and hydrogen, or
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They
are, (a) alcohol, or spirit, ardent ; (6)
ether ; (c) oils, volatile ; (</) oils, fixed ;
(e) bitumens.

CHENOLEA, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der : natural order of Holoracex : Atripli-
ces, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx
globular, one-leafed, five-parted; capsule
•one-celled, containing one smooth seed,
bifid at the tip. There is but one spe-
cies, viz. C. diffusa, which is a native of
the Cape of Good Hope.

CHENG PODIUM, in botany, English
goose foot, a genus of the Pentandria
Digynia class and order : natural order of
Holoracex : Atripliccs, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character, calyx five-leaved, five-cor-
nered; corolla none ; seed one, centicu-
lar, superior. There are twenty -three
species. The C. anthelminticum is, as
its name imports, a medicine possessing
the property of expelling worms ; worm-,
oil, as it is called, is made principally of
this plant. It is a native in many parts of
the United States, and Pursh says is com-
mon in the streets of Philadelphia

CHERLERIA, in botany, so called in
honour of Cherler, assistant and son-in-
law to John Bauhin : a genus of the De-
candria Trigynia class and order: natu-
ral order ofCaryophyllei. Essential cha-
racter : calyx five-leaved ; nectaries, five,
bifid, resembling petals* ; anthers alter-
nate, barren ; capsule one-celled, three-
valved, three-seeded. There is but one
species, viz C. sedodides ; stone crop
cherleria. It is fonnd on the mountains
of Dauphine, Switzerland, Savoy, the
Valais, Austria, Carniola, and the High-
lands of Scotland. Perennial ; flowering
in August.

CIIERMES, in natural history, a genus
of insects of the order Hemiptera.
Generic character; snout placed in the
breast, with three inflected bristles ; an-
tennae filiform, pubescent longer than the
thorax; four wrings deflected; thorax
gibbous; hind legs formed for leaping.

There are 24 species. They inhabit va-
rious trees and plants, and produce, by
their punctures, protuberances and ex-
crescences of various shapes and sizes, in
which are frequently enclosed the eggs
and insects in their several states the
larva is six-footed and apterous : the pupa
is distinguished by two protuberances on
the thorax, which are the rudiments of
future wings. C. alni is founded on the
leaves and shoots of alder ; its larva
is entirely covered about the hinder part
by viscid down or cotton ; tins, if pur-
posely rubbed off, is quickly repr^luced
by the animal, which secretes the white
fibres from large pores placed in a circle
at some distance from the vent. These
larva are gregarious, often appearing in
such numbers on the shoots of the tree
that the whole shoot appears covered
with cotton, which, if toucl»ed with the
finger, separates into distinct tufts, from
the animals being suddently disturbed,
and moving in all directions. C. buxi ;
antennae setaceous ; wings yellowish
brown. Its punctures make the leaves
bend in towards each other at their ex-
tremity, forming & hollow knob, in which
the larva are enclosed.

CHERRY tree, in botany. See Pnu-

CHESNUTfrar. See FAGUS.

Next to the oak, the chesnut timber is
most coveted by carpenters and joiners.
It likewise makes the best stakes, pallisa-
does, vine props, hop-poles, &c. and is
also proper for mill timber and water-
works. It is likewise fit for chests, ta-
bles, bedsteads, columns, &c.

CHESS, a game played by two per-
sons .sitting vis-a-vis, and having between
them a square board, containing 64 rec-
tangular chequers, alternate white and
black : each player has the white corner
square at his right hand. The pieces
are as follows, for each party. A queen,
which is always placed on her own co-
lour : thus the white queen is on a white
square, the fourth from the corner, and
the black queen on the black square, fac-
ing- the white queen. Their respective
kings are then placed by the sides of the
queens, so that each couple occupy the
two centre squares on the lines nearest
the players. Two bishops are then plac-
ed, one on the side of the king, the
other on the side of the queen, on squares
of different colours. Bishops are gene-
rally distinguished by a kind of mitre on
their tops : at the bides of the bishops
are placed the two knights, also on differ-
ent coloured squares: these are usually
distinguished by horses' heads, or by

CHESS.

having" a piece obliquely taken off from
their fiat round bonnets. The exterior
pieces are called castles or rocks, and
are commonly made to resemble turrets ;
or may be only pawns of a larger size.
The pawns, eight in number, are ranged
so as to occupy all the squares on the se-
cond line, immediately in front of the
line of pieces. Pawns are generally
pieces of turned wood, of a neat pattern,
and with spherical summits. This de-
scription of one party will answer for
both ; observing that the players are de-
signated according1 to the colour of their
pieces. Such as are white or yellow, are
called white, and such as are black, red,
green, &c. are called black.

The king- can only move one square at
a time, but in any direction that may be
open to him : he cannot, however, move
to, nor remain on, a square which is com-
manded by any of the adversary's pieces
or pawns. The queen moves only in right
lines, but her range is unlimited where
the board is clear : thus she can go the
whole breadth, or the whole length, or
the whole diagonal of the board. If
placed in the centre of the board, she
could, consequently, move in any one
of the eight, i. c. four rectangular,
and four diagonal directions, diverging
from the square on which she might
stand. The bishops always move in a
diagonal direction, each invariably adher-
ing to that colour on which he was ori-
ginally placed ; these pieces are called
according to the colour on which they
stand and move, without any reference
to their own complexions respectively.
Thus the white party has a black and a
white bishop ; though they are both made
of a white substance : the same holds in
regard to the adversary's bishops. The
knights have a circular move, always
proceeding to such squares, within two
distant, as may be of opposite colour to
that from which they move ; counting
that square, say it be white, as one, the
knight passes over one square, either
black or white, and settles on a black
square next thereto. Hence a knight
can remove to or command eight squares,
all in different directions from that on
which he stands. The castles only move
at right angles with the board; pro-
ceeding, if nothing should interrupt,
either the whole length, or the whole
breadth, at pleasure. The pawns have
each the privilege of moving forward two
squares, at the first move of each £e-
spectively, provided no obstacle should
present itself: but ever after they can

only move forward one square at a time.
When pawns capture, they do it oblique-
ly, but only at one square distance ; thus
a pawn, on a white square, can take any
pawn or piece of the adversan 's that may
be on either of the diagonals proceeding
from such white square, right and left,
provided such pawn or piece be on
the square next to that on which the
pawn stands. Pawns riever recede ; all
their moves are straight forward; they
have, however, the great privilege of
being changed for any piece the party
they appertain to may choose, whenever
they can reach that line on which the ad-
versaries'pieces were originally arranged:
on such occasions the successful pawn is
taken off the square, and any piece its
owner may have lost is placed thereon in
its stead. As a queen is usually chosen,
where one has been lost, this is called
making a queen.

A review of the chess board will show-
that every piece, as it stands on the
board, protects one pawn, while each of
the two centre pawns has four defences;
The weakest parts of the board are
the pawns before the knights and bi-
shops.

The king cannot remain in check, nor
can he remove to a square that is com-
manded by any piece or pawn of the ad-
versary. When he is so situated as to be
liable to be taken, /. e. in check, and that
he cannot move but into a similar situa-
tion, the game is ended, by what is call-
ed check-mate. When the party cannot
move any of his pieces or pawns, and his
king is not in check, or, as it is called, en
prise, but would be so if he moved, be
wins the game, under the plea of stale-
mate. To effect this, when the party has
lost his defences, is therefore an object
of moment. Young plajers, when carry-
ing all before them, very frequently give
their adversaries this negative victory, by
pushing on, without attending to the con-
sequences of too closely confining the
opponent's king1.

When the space between the king and,
either castle is clear, and that neither
the king nor castle is en prise, the cas,^
tie may then be brought next to the king,
and the king be placed on the opposite
side of the castle ; this is called castleing,
but can only be done once in the game,
and before either the king or the castle
has made any move. If either the king,
or castle, crosses or comes upon a square
that is commanded by a piece or pawn
belonging to the adversan7, the cas*1
rannothe allowed.

CHE

CHI

This operation is resorted to, either
tor the purpose of withdrawing the king1
from an attack directed against the square
on which he is placed, or against that of
his pawn ; or it is used as the means of
opening- a communication between the
two castles, when all the intermediate
pieces are removed; or to strength en the
defence of the centre pawns, as well as
to carry the game into the centre of the
adversary's board. It is to be remarked,
that the centre is ever to be strongly de-
fended, if the measures pursued by the
other party should admit. When the la-
teral game is played, that defence must
be adopted which circumstances demand.
The judicious chess player never makes
an useless move, nor leaves a pawn or a
piece unprotected. He forms his plans
regularly, so as to calculate with preci-
siph what would be the position of the
pieces after four or five moves he has in
contemplation may have been made. He
looks more to the solidity of his measures
than to little ensnaring stratagems ;
thouglihe will not fail to appear ignorant
of such designs as he may perceive to be
within the intention of his opponent,
when he knows that by an affected in-
attention, or blindness, to the device, he
can make a more immediate impression,
and render the whole speculation, not
only void, but the means of ruining its
projector.

The game of chess has certainly some
affinity to the art of war ; but the analo-
gy is not so strict as players generally
suppose. We can, however, inform the
amateurs of this pleasing species of con-
test, that a work is now in the press which
cannot fail to afford a treat, as it opens a
new. field for the display of skill, and
teems with the most ample and interest-
ing varieties.

CHEVRON, or CHEVERON, in heral-
dry, one of the honourable ordinaries of
a shield, representing two rafters of an
house, joined together as they ought to
stand; it was anciently the form of the
priestesses' head attire : some say it is a
symbol of protection ; others, of constan-
cy ; others, that it represents knights'
spears, &c. It contains the fifth part of
the field.

A chevron is said to be abased, when
its point does not approach the head of
the chief, nor reach farther than the mid-
dle of the coat ; mutilated, when it does
not touch the extremes of the coat ; clo-
ven, when the upper pieces are taken off,
so that the pieces only touch at one of
the angles ; broken, when one branch is

separated into two pieces; couched*
when the point is turned towards one
.side of the escutcheon ; divided, when
the branches are of several metals, or
when metal is opposed to colour ; invert-
ed, when the point is turned towards the
point of the coat, and its branches to-
wards the chief.

CHIEF, in heraldry, is that which takes
up all the upper part of the escutcheon
from side to sideband represents the or-
naments used on a man's head.

CHILIAD, denotesya thousand of any
things, ranged in several divisions, each
of which contains that number.

CHILIAGON, in geometry, a regular
plain figure of a thousand sides.

CHIMJERA, in natural history, a genus
of fishes of the Linnsean order Chondrop-
terigius, and according to Shaw, of the
order Cartilagenei. Generic character :
head pointed on the upper part; month
placed beneath, with the upper lip five-
cleft ; cutting teeth two in front, both
above and below. There are two spe-
cies, viz. C. monstrosa or borealis, and C.
callorynchus or australis The former is
remarkable for the singularity of its ap-
pearance; it is a native of the northern
seas, where it inhabits the deepest re-
cesses, and preys on the smaller kind of
fishes, as well as on various sorts of the
mollusca and testacea tribes. It is about
three or four feet long. Notwithstand-
ing the Linnaean name of monstrosa, its
appearance is not at all formidable, and
its colours highly elegant. See Plate
II. Pisces, fig. 5. The C. australis is a
native of the southern seas, and its man-
ner of life similar to that of the noi-thern
ocean.

CHIMARRHIS, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Essential character : corolla funnel-
form, with a very short tube ; capsule in-
ferior, obtuse, two-celled, two-valved,
the valves bifid at the tip ; seed one in
each cell. There is but one species,
viz. C. cymosa, a lofty tree, with a hand-
some head, the boughs spreading out
horizontally. Flowers numerous, small,
with white corollas, without scent; cap-
sule small. The wood is white, and
used for beams, rafters, &c. It is called
in Marti nico, where it is comman, bois de
reviere.

CHIMES of a clock, a kind of periodical
music, produced at equal intervals of
time, by means of a particular apparatus
added to a clock.

CHIMNEY is that part of a house
which serves, to conduct the smoke of the

CHIMNEY SWEEPING.

fires to the exterior. This will not, how-
ever, be effected, unless the draught of
air be decidedly from the bottom to the
top. To insure this, the fire-place should
be rather wide than narrow in the front,
and gradually taper backwards, so as to
proceed all the way up in rather a coni-
cal form, causing the smoke to rush forth
with velocity. This is the great secret,
the want of which, added to angular
instead of curved lines, where bends are
requisite in any part of the flue, and the
being overtopped by adjoining buildings,
trees, banks, Sec, has caused much incon-
venience. Some persons are so very par-
ticular in listing their doors, and in mak-
ing apartments completely wind-tight,
that the want of draught has occasioned
the best constructed chimnies to smoke
intolerably ; a few holes made with a gim-
let in the sashes have remedied the de-
fect. When a chimney is very foul, so
as to be choked in a certain degree, the
soot will generally check the draught.
Short flues are subject to repel the smoke,
because the wind from above can so ea-
sily reach all the way down, which in
long flues it cannot do. If it could be ap-
plied to general use, the form of a tile-
kiln should be generally adopted for that
of the chimney

CHIMXKT sweeping. Smoke, in its pass-
age through a chimney, deposits a great
part of the soot with which it is loaded,
upon the sides of the flue, which causes
danger from fire, and is besides apt to fall
back into the room. It is therefore fre-
quently necessary to have the flues clean-
ed. To effect this, various expedients
have been resorted to, but that most com-
monly adopted is the use of climbing
boys, who ascend within the chimney
and sweep down the soot. The evils of
this disagreeable and unwholesome oc-
cupation to those engaged in it are ge-
nerally acknowledged, and of late years
the public attention has been directed to
this subject, and premiums offered for
the discovery of methods which might
be substituted to a practice so offensive
to humanity.

In the year 1802, a number of public-
spirited and wealthy persons in London
associated for this purpose, and offered
considerable premiums to those who
might invent, and bring into practice, a
method of cleansing chimneys, by me-
chanical means, that should supersede
the necessity of climbing boys. Feeling
themselves, perhaps, inadequate to the
task of carrying their laudable intentions
into full execution, they applied to the
" Society for the Encouragement of

VOL. m.

Arts, Manufactures," &c. in the Adelphi*
requesting them to engage in it, and to
offer premiums on the subject. In con-
sequence of this application, the society
offered their gold medal to the person,
who should invent the most effectual me-
chanical or other means for cleansing
chimnies from soot, and obviating the ne-
cessity of children being employed with-
in the flues. In a few months there were
five candidates for this premium, whose
several inventions were jmt to the test of
experiment upon chimnies not less than
70 feet high. One of the inventions con-
sisted of a set of brushes with pullies and
weights, which were to be let down from
the top of the chimney ; but as the ob-
ject was to find an apparatus to effect the
purpose from the inside of the house,
this was deemed unfit to accomplish the
views of the society. Another gentle-
man proposed the plan of throwing gra-
vel up the chimney by means of con-
densed air : the machine was tried, and
deemed wholly inadequate to the pur-
pose. A third apparatus consisted of
elastic rods of whale-bone and cane, with
a brush at the end of the upper one,
which was found to answer only in short
and straight chimnies. The next consist-
ed of laths several feet long, which lock-
ed into one another, and on the upper
one was fixed an elastic expanding brush,
which, in its ascending- and contracted
state, occupied a space of only six or
eight inches, but which was to be open-
ed, when forced to the top of the chim-
ney, by means of a string attached to it,
the whole length of the rods. After
many experiments before divers persons
appointed to examine its merits, this was
given up as ineffectual to the purpose re-
quired. The only remaining apparatus
was invented by Mr. George Smart, the
patentee of a method of making hollow
masts for ships : to him, after a long se-
ries of practice, in which he has been al-
most uniformly successful, the gold me-
dal was adjudged ; he has received also,
we believe, some other premiums for his
invention. As his method is now practis-
ed by several persons in and near the
metropolis, we shall give a more particu-
lar account of it. The principal parts of
the machine are, a brush, some rods or
hollow tubes, that fasten into each other
by means of brass sockets, and a cord for
connecting the whole together.

The method of using the machine is
this : having ascertained, by looking up
the chimney, what is the direction of the
flue, a cloth is then to be fixed before
the fire-place, with the horizontal bar,
Y

CHI

and the sides to be closed with two up-
vight bars. The brush is introduced
through the opening of the cloth, which
opening is then to be buttoned, and one
of the rods is to be passed up the cord
into the socket on the lower end of the
rod which supports the brush ; the other
rods are in like manner to be brought up
one by one in succession, till the brush is
raised somewhat above the top of the
chimney, observing to keep the cord
constantly tight, and when those rods
which have a screw in the socket are
brought up, they are to be placed on the
purchase ; the cord is to be put round the
pulley, and drawn very tight, and screw-
ed down, by which all the rods above
will be firmly connected together, and
the whole may be regarded as one long
flexible rod. In pulling the machine
down, the edges of the brush, striking
against the top of the chimney, will cause
it to expand, and there being a spring to
prevent its contracting again, it will bring
down the soot with it. In drawing down
the machine, the person should grasp
with his left hand the rod immediately
above that which he is separating with
his right hand, to prevent the upper
ones from sliding down too soon. The
rods, as they are brought down, are to be
laid carefully one by one in as small a
compass as possible, and arranged like a
bundle of sticks.

This machine has been found useful in
extinguishing fires in chinmies : for that
purpose a coarse cloth is to be tied
over the brush, dipped in water, and
then passed up in the manner directed.
After three years experience, Mr. Smart's
machine has been found, in a great mea-
sure, to answer the purposes for which it
was intended ; in the course of several
thousand trials, it is ascertained that not
more than one or two chimnies, at most,
in a hundred, has resisted the passage of
the brush. It is, however, of importance
to observe, that the invention cannot be
deemed in a state of perfection ; soot
from some coals adheres so strongly to the
sides of the chimney, and chimney-pot,
that no brush will of itself bring it down,
so that after a considerable time it may
be expected that means must be found
to scrape off* the soot, as the climbing
boys now generally do : we wish, there-
fore, that such an addition to the appa-
ratus could be devised, as should remedy
this defect. It is well known that one
cause of the smoking of chimnies is from
the circumstance, of the top of the chim-
ney-pot being clogged with soot that ad-
heres to the upper edge, which it is cer-

tain Mr. Smart's brush Las in many
instances failed to remove. He has done
much to obviate an evil long complained
of: an evil that has deprived of health?
and eventually of life, a multitude of per-
sons in their youth, that might for a long
course of years have been useful to the
Community, and we wish to see in his
hands the invention, so honourable to his
talents, rendered still more useful by be-
ing more perfect. He has attained, with
regard to making his brush ascend the
chimney, all that can be expected, and
instead of bringing up infants to climb
the fiftieth or hundredth chimney, which
on accottnt of the direction of the flue no
apparatus can be made to ascend, other
means may be adopted.

CHIOCOCCA, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Aggregate. Rhu-
biacex, Jussieu. Essential character :
corolla funnel-form, equal ; berry one-
celled, two-seeded, inferior. There are
two species. C.racemosa, climbingsnow-
berry-tree, or David's root, is a native of
the West -Indies ; and C. barbata, a native
of the Marquesas, Society and Friendly
Islands, in the South Sea.
. CHIONANTHUS, in botany, fringe, or
snowdrop tree, a genus of the Diandria
Monogynia class and order. Natural or-
der of Sepiarise. Jasminex, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : corolla'quadrifid, with
the divisions extremely long : drupe with
a striated nut. There are four species,
of which C. Virginica, Virginia fringe-
tree, or snowdrop-tree, is common in
.South-Carolina, where it grows by the
sides of rivulets,, and is rarely, more than
ten feet high : the leaves are as large as
those of the laurel, but are of a much
thinner substance : the flowers come out
in May, hanging in long bunches, of a
pure white colour, whence the inhabi-
tants call it snowdrop-tree ; and the
flowers being cut into narrow segments,
they give it the name of fringe-tree.
This beautiful tree is one of the Ameri-
can plants in the highest esteem in Eu-
rope, and is always eagerly sought and
cultivated in the gardens of the curious.
CHIROMANCY, a species of divina-
tion, drawn from the different lines and
lineaments of a person's hand ; by which
means it is pretended the inclinations
may be discovered.

CHIRONIA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Rotacese. Gentianx,
Jussieu. Essential'character : corolla ro-
tated ; pistil declinate ; stamens on the
tube of the corolla ; anthers finally spiral ;

CHI

pericarp two-celled. There are ten spe-
cies, mostly natives of the Cape of Good
Hope.

CHISSEL, an instrument much used
in carpentry, masonry, joinery, sculpture,
&.C. and distinguished, according to the
breadth of the blade, into half-inch chis-
sels, quarter-inch chresels, &c. They
have also different names, according to
the different uses to which they are ap-
plied, as, 1. The former, used by carpen-
ters, &c. just after the work is scribed :
it is struck with a mallet. 2. The paring-
chissel, which is used in paring off the
irregularities made by the former : this
is pressed with the workman's shoulder.

3. The skew-former cleanses acute an-
gles with the point of its narrow edge.

4. The mortice-chissel, used in cutting
deep square holes in the wood, for mor-
tices : it is narrow, but thick and strong,
to endure hard blows. 5. Socket chissels,
having their shank made with a hollow
socket at top, to receive a strong wooden
sprig fitted into it with a shoulder. 6.
Ripping chissel, having a blunt edge,
with no basil, used in tearing two pieces
of wood asunder. And 7. The gouge.

CHITON, in natural history, a genus
of Vermes Testacea. Animal inhabiting
the shell a doris : shell consisting of se-
veral segments or valves disposed down
the back. There are 28 species. They
differ very much in colour, and are found
on almost every coast in the ocean. C.
tuberculatus : shell seven-valved ; body
taberculate ; inhabits America ; oblong-
oval, narrow, with tubercles above dis-
posed in quincunx ; the sides cinereous,
mixed with white, and marked with
brown undulate bands; back greenish,
with a broad, deep, black band. C. cine-
reus : shell eight valved, smooth, cari-
nate ; body reddish, with a subciliate
border ; inhabits the Norwegian seas
among the roots of ulvae ; two lines long ;
depressed and narrower before, with
two longitudinal grooves down the back,
bounding the ridge in the middle ; when
alive both the shell and animal are reddish,
when dried cinereous.

CHIVALRY, iu law, is a tenure of ser-
vice, whereby the tenant is bound to per-
form some noble or military office to his
lord; and is either regal, when held only
of the king; or common, such as may be
held of a common person, as well as the
king : the former is properly called ser-
jeanty, and the latter escuage.

CHIVALRY, in antiquity, an institution,

which, according to some writers, took

;se from the crusades ; but, according

to others, it gave occasion to that enter-
prise, and which, though founded in ca-
price, and productive of extravagance,
had a very considerable influence in refin-
ing the manners of the European nations,
during the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth,
and fifteenth centuries.

This institution naturally arose, says
Dr. Robertson, from the state of society
at that period. The feudal state was a
state of perpetual war, rapine, and anar-
chy ; during which the weak and unarm-
ed were exposed to perpetual insults or
injuries. The power of the sovereign
was too limited to prevent these wrongs ;
and the administration of justice too
feeble to redress them. Against vio-
lence and oppression there was scarcely
any protection, besides that which the
valour and generosity of private persons
afforded. The same spirit of enterprise,
which had prompted so many gentlemen
to take arms in defence of the oppressed
pilgrims in Palestine, incited others to de-
clare themselves the patrons and aveng-
ers of injured innocence at home. When
the final reduction of the Holy Land un-
der the dominion of infidels put an end to
these foreign expeditions, the latter was
the only employment left for the activity
and courage of adventurers. The objects
of this institution were, to check the in-
solence of overgrown oppressors, to suc-
cour the distressed, to rescue the helpless
from captivity, to protect or to avenge
women, orphans, and ecclesiastics, who
could not bear arms in their own defence,
to redress wrongs and to remove griev-
ances. These were considered as acts
of the highest prowess and merit. Va-
lour, gallantry, and religion, were blended
in this institution ; humanity, courtesy,
justice, and honour, were its character-
istic qualities ; the enthusiastic zeal pro-
duced by religion served to give it singu-
lar energy, and to carry it even to a
romantic excess : men were trained to
knighthood by long previous discipline ;
they were admitted into the order by so-
lemnities no less devout than pompous ;
every person of noble birth courted the
honour ; it was deemed a distinction su-
perior to royalty ; and monarchs were
found to receive it from the hands of pri-
vate gentlemen. These various circum-
stances contributed to render a whimsi-
cal institution of substantial benefit to
mankind.

Chivalry was employed in rescuing
humble and faithful vassals from the op-
pression of petty lords ; their women
from savage lust ; and the hoary heads of

CHI

CHL

hermits (a species of Eastern monks,
much reverenced in the Holy Land)
from rapine arid outrage. In the mean
time the courts of the feudal sovereigns
became magnificent and polite ; and as
the military constitution still subsisted,
military merit was to be upheld ; but
destitute of its former objects, it natural-
ly softened into fictitious images and
courtly exercises of war, in "jousts" and
•'tournaments;" where the honour of
the ladies supplied the place of zeal
for the holy sepulchre ; and thus the
courtesy of elegant love, but of a wild
and fanatic species, as being engrafted
on spiritual enthusiasm, came to mix it-
self with the other characters of the
knigrhts-errant.

Chivalry, whatever might be the era of
its origin, declined in England during the
inglorious reigns of King John and Henry
III ; but revived under Edward I. This
prince was one of the most accomplish-
ed knights of the age in which he flour-
ished, and both delighted and excelled in
feats of chivalry. As a proof of this, it
will be sufficient to allege, that when he
was on his return from the Holy Land,
after his father's death, and knew that
his presence was ardently desired in Eng-
land, he accepted an invitation to a tour-
nament at Chalons in Burgundy, where he
displayed his skill and valour to great ad-
vantage, and gained a complete victory.
Edward III. was no less fond of chivalry,
and encouraged it both by his example
and munificence. Having formed the de-
sign of asserting his claim to the crown
ot France, he laboured to inspire his own
subjects with a bold enterprising spirit,
and to entice as many valiant foreigners
as possible into his service.

"This singular institution, says Dr.
Robertson, in which valour, gallantry, and
religion, were so strangely blended, was'
wonderfully adapted to the taste and ge-
nius of martial nobles ; and its effects
were soon visible in their manners. War
was carried on with less ferocity, when
humanity came to be deemed the orna-
ment of knighthood no less than courage.
More gentle and polished manners were
introduced, when courtesy was recom-
mended as the most amiable of knightly
virtues. Violence and oppression de-
creased, when it was reckoned meritori-
ous to check and to punish them. A scru-
pulous adherence to truth, with the most
religious attention to fulfil every engage-
ment, became the distinguishing charac-
teristic of a gentleman, because chivalry
was regarded as the school of honour, and

inculcated the most delicate sensibility
with respect to that point. The admira-
tion of these qualities, together with the
high distinctions and prerogatives confer-
red on knighthood in every part of Eu-
rope, inspired persons of noble birth, on
some occasions, withu species of military
fanaticism, and led them to extravagant
enterprises. But they imprinted deeply
on their minds the principles of generosi-
ty and honour. These were strengthen-
ed by every thing that can afreet the
senses or touch the heart. The wild ex-
ploits of those romantic knights, who sal-
lied forth in quest of adventures, are well
known, and have been treated with pro-
per ridicule. The political and perma-
nent efforts of the spirit of chivalry have
been less observed. Perhaps, the humani-
ty which accompanies all the operations
of war, the refinements of gallantry, and
the point of honour, the three chief
cir umstances which distinguish modern
from ancient manners, may • be ascribed
in a great measure to this whimsical in-
stitution, seemingly of little benefit to
mankind. The sentiments which chival-
ry inspired had a wonderful influence
on manners and conduct, during the
twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fif-
teenth centuries. They were so deeply
rooted, that they continued to operate
after the vigour and reputation of the
institution itself began to decline." In a
word, chivalry, which is now an object
of ridicule, was, at the period to which
we have above refered, a matter of the
greatest moment, and had no little influ-
ence on the manners of mankind, and
the fate of nations.

A respectable writer has traced, with
ingenuity and much learning, a strong
resemblance between the manners of the
age of chivalry and those of the heroic
ages delineated by Homer. See Letters
on Chivalry, &c.

CHLORA, in botany, a genus of the
Octandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Rotaceae. Gentianae, Jus-
sieu. Essential character: calyx eight-
leaved ; corolla one-petalled, eight cleft;
capsule one-celled, two-valved, many-
seeded. Stigma four-cleft. There are
four species.

CHLORANTHUS, in botany, a genus
of the Tetrandria Monogynia class and
order. Natural order of Aggregate. Es-
sential character : calyx none ; corolla a
petal, three-lobed by the side of the germ;
anthers growing to the petal ; drupe one-
seeded. There is but one species.

CHLORIS, in botany, a genus of the

CHO

Polygamia Monoecia class and order.
Hermaphrodite calyx, glume two-valved,
two-flowered; avvned, corolla none ; sta-
mina three ; styles two ; seeds one ; male
calyx, glume one valved ; female sessile ;
calyx, glume two-valved. There are five
species, natives of the West Indies.

CHLOROSIS, in medicine, a disease
commonly called the green-sickness. See
MKDH-TXE.

CHOCOLATE is made of roasted co-
coa, which being first coarsely pounded
in a stone mortar, is afterwards levigated
on a slab of the finest grained marble ;
to this a small quantity of vanilla is add-
ed. The mixture is heated, sometimes
with cream, and put into tin moulds of
the size in which the cakes appear.
Chocolate is nutritive, and not unwhole-
some, provided the stomach be active,
and that exercise be not neglected : it
would be less objectionable if the vanilla
were omitted, that being of a very heat-
ing quality, but on it the flavour chiefly
depends. Manufactured chocolate, and
cocoa-paste, are prohibited from impor-
tation under severe penalties. See THE-

OBKOMA.

CHOCOLATE BROOM. A plant, from
the seeds ofwhich a beverage resembling
chocolate is made in some parts of Penn-
sylvania. See HOLCUS BICOLOR.

CHQIR, that part of the church or ca-
thedral where choristers sing divine ser-
vice : it is separated from the chancel,
where the communion is celebrated; and
also from the nave of the church, where
the people are placed ; the patron is said
to be obliged to repair the choir of the
church.

CHOMELIA, in botany, a genus of
the Tetrandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Calyx four-parted ; corolla salver-
shaped, four-parted; drupe inferior, with
a two-celled nut ; stigmata two, thickish.
One species, found in America.

CHONDRILLA, in botany, a genus of
Syngenesia Poly gamia^Equal is class and
order. Natural order of Composite Se-
miflosculossc. Cichoracex, Jussieu. Es-
sential character: calyx calycled;floscules
in many rows ; seeds muricated ; pappus
simple, stipitated. There are three spe-
cies.

CHONDROPTERIGTOUS, a term ap-
plied by the Unnaean system to an order
of fishes with cartilaginous gills. Dr.
Shaw, and other naturalists, have united
the Branchiostegi and Chondropterygii
under the general title of Cartilaginei.
Linnaeus separated the cartilaginous from
tjie other fishes, and placed them in the

class Amphibia, where they constituted
the order Nantes- This distribution was
made under the supposition of the carti-
laginous fishes being furnished both with
lungs and gills. The supposed lungs,
however, have been since ascertained by
naturalists to be only a modification of
the gills, and it, therefore, now appears
that this cartilaginous tribe are in reality
fishes, differing principally, if not en-
tirely, from other fishes, in having a car-
tilaginous skeleton. They differ from the
generality of other fishes, in having gills
destitute of bony rays, or in the gills
being cartilaginous, and they are defi-
cient for the most part at least of obvious
scales, those being either very deciduous,
minute, or so deeply iml.edded in the
skin, as to be scarcely visible. In many
of the cartilaginous fishes there is not
the slightest appearance of scales on the
surface of the skin. The Chondropterigii
genera are,

Acipenser Chimsera Gastrobranchus
Petromyzor Pristis Raia
Squalus : which see.

CHORD of an arch, is a right line join-
ing the extremes of that arch.

CHORD of the complement of an arch,
the chord that subtends the rest of the
arch, or so much as makes up the arch a
semicircle.

It is demonstrated in geometry, that
the radius bisecting the chord also bi-
sects the arch, and is perpendicular to
the chord. From hence may be deduced
these problems : 1. To make a circle
pass through any three given points, not
lying in a right line. 2. To find the cen-
tre of any circle. 3. To complete a cir-
cle from an arch given. 4. To describe
a circle about any triangle given.

CHORDS, line of, one of the lines of the
sector and plane scale. See INSTRUMENTS,
mathematical.

CHORDS, or CORDS, in music, are
strings,by the vibrations of which the sen-
sation of sound is excited, and by the di-
visions of which the several degrees of
tune are determined.

The chords of musical instruments arc
ordinarily made of cat-gut ; though some
are made of brass or iron wire, as those
of harpsichords, spinnets, &c. Chords of
gold-wire in harpsichords would yield a
sound almost twice as strong as those of
brass ; and those of steel a feebler sound
than those of brass, as being both less
heavy and less ductile.

The rules for dividing chord?, so as to

CHO

CHB

constitute any given interval, are as fol-
low : to assign such part of a chord
A B as shall constitute any concord ; for
example, a fifth, or any other interval,
with the whole chord : divide the line
A B into as many parts as the greatest
number of the interval has units; thus
the fifth being 2: 3, the line is divided
into

three parts : of these take as many as
the lesser number 2 = A C, then is A C
the part sought ; that is, two lines whose
lengths are to each other as A B to A C,
make a fifth. Hence, if it be required to
find several different sections of the line
A B, for instance such as shall be octave,
fifth or third greater; reduce the given
ratios 1 : 2, 2 : 3, and 4 : 5 to one funda-
mental,the series becomes 30 : 24, 20 : 15,
the fundamental is 30, and the sections
sought are 24 the third greater, 20 the
fifth, and IS the octave.

To divide a chord A B in the most
simple manner, so as to exhibit all the
original concords. Divide the line into
two equal parts at C, and subdivide the
part C D into equal parts at D, and again
the part C D into equal parts at E.
C E D

A-

I I I

Here A C : A B is an octave, A C : A D
a fifth, A D : A B a fourth, A C : A E a
third greater ; A E : A D a third less ;
A E : E B a sixth greater; A E : A B a
sixth less.

CHORD is also used in music for the note
or tone to be touched or sounded : in this
sense the fifth is said to consist of five
chords or sounds.

C, HORDOSTYLUM, in botany, a genus
of the Cryptogamia Fungi. Fungus te-
nacius; on a very long, tough, slightly
branched stem ; head globular, some-
what deciduous, bearing the seeds. There
are fire species.

CHORION, in anatomy, the exterior
membrane which invests the foetus in the
uterus.

CHOROGRAPHY, the art of deline-
ating or describing some particular coun-
try or province : it differs from geogra-
phy, as a description of a particular coun-
try differs irom that of the whole earth ;
and from topography, as a description of
a country differs from that of a town or
district.

rjlOROIDES, in anatomy, an epithet

of several membranes, which on account
of the multitude of their blood-vessels
resemble the chorion.

Choroides denotes the coat of the eye
placed immediately under the sclerotica.
It is very full of vessels, and coloured
black.

CHORUS, in dramatic poetry, one o?
more persons present on the stage during
the representation, and supposed to be
by-standers, without any share in the ac-
tion. Tragedy in its origin was no more
than a single chorus, who trod the stage
alone, and without any actors, singing di-
thyrambics or hymns in honour of Bac-
chus. Thespis, to relieve the chorus,
added an actor, who rehearsed the ad-
ventures of some of their heroes ; and
jEschylus, Ending a single person too
dry an entertainment, added a second,
at the same time reducing the singing of
the chorus, to make more room for the
recitation. But when once tragedy began
to be formed, the recitative, which at first
was intended only as an accessory part, to
give the chorus a breathing time, became
a principal part of the tragedy. At length,
however, the chorus became inserted and
incorporated into the action: sometimesit
was to speak, and then their chief, whom
they called Coryphaeus, spoke in behalf of
the rest : the singing was performed by
the whole company ; so that when the
Coryphxus struck into a song, the chorus
immediately joined him.

The chorus 'sometimes also joined the
actors, in the course of the representa-
tion, with their plaints and lamentations
on account of any unhappy accidents
that befel them : but the proper function,
and that for which it seemed chiefly re-
tained, was to show the intervals of the
acts : while the actors were behind the
scenes, the chorus engaged the specta-
tors ; their songs usually turned on what
was exhibited, and were not to contain
any thing but what was suited to the
subject, and had a natural connection
with it ; so that the chorus concurred
with the actors for advancing the ac-
tion. In the modern tragedies the cho-
rus is laid aside, and the music supplies
its place.

CHORUS, in music, is when, at certain,
periods of a song, the whole company are
to join the singer in repeating certain
couplets or verses.

CHRISTIANITY, the religion of Chris-
tians, who derive their name from the
founder, Christ, so denominated from the
Greek word %pia} I anoint, from the cus-

CHRISTIANITY.

torn of anointing persons in the sacerdo-
tal or regal character, as a public signal
of their separation to important offices.
After the death of Jesus, his disciples
were for some years called Nazarenes,
from Nazareth, where he was brought
up. This name afterwards became the
designation of a particular sect; and we
learn from a passage in the Acts of the
Apostles, that about the year 42, they
who adopted the principlesand professed
the religion which Jesus had taught, and
for the sake of which he cheerfully laid
down his life, were distinguished by the
name of Christians at Antioch. Hence
the system itself is called Christianity.
The foundation of a Christian's faith and
practice, his ultimate, and, in truth, his
only appeal, must be to the facts, the
doctrines, and the precepts of the Scrip-
tures, particualrly those of the New Tes-
tament. Other formularies, other con-
fessions of faith, from whatever motives
dictated, and from whatever reasons re-
commended, should ever be regarded
with a suspicious eye ; lest, by laying
stress upon what is human, \ve should
overlook that which comes recommended
upon divine authority. The careful read-
er of the New Testament will find a
detail of instructions given, of wonders
performed, and of future events reveal-
ed. He will also be struck with a very
particular account of the sufferings,death,
resurrection, and ascension of Jesus, the
founder. The history containing these
things appears to be fairly written, and to
carry with it as substantial proofs of its
authenticity, as any history that has
gained credit in the world. Is the Chris-
tian called upon for the reason why he
believes in the antiquity of the writings
of the New Testament ? he may reply,
" For the same reason that I believe the
antiquity of Virgil's poems, Csesar's Com-
mentaries, or Sallust's narrations : and
that is, the concurring testimony of all
intervening ages. Do any ask, Why I
believe that the several books were writ-
ten by the persons whose names they
bear ? I answer, for the same reason that
I believe the Georgics to be the produc-
tion of Virgil ; Jerusalem Delivered, that
of Tasso ; Paradise Lost, that of Milton ;
an Essay upon the Subject of Miracles,
to be the work of Hume ; and a Refuta-
tion of that Essay, the performance of
Campbell. Do any inquire, \Vhetherthe
sacred pages have not been greatly cor-
rupted ? I answer, They have not been
greatly corrupted : as appears by a colla-

tion of the earliest manuscripts, and a?]
appeal to the earliest versions and ancient
fathers. So many corroborating circum-
stances plead in favouv of the Gospel,
that I must either disturb all records, or
continueto admit the authenticity of those
which display the duty and hopes of a
Christian."

In reasoning upon the truth of Christi-
anity we may appeal to its internal evi-
dence, and, combining the doctrine and
precepts of the system, infer from them
the validity of the system itself. The early
triumphs of this religion furnish another
powerful argument in its support : espe-
cially if it be remembered, that in the es-
timation of the world it was neither ho-
nourable, profitable, nor popular. Under
every disadvantage, and struggling under
the most terrible persecution, it flourish-
ed, and has maintained its ground for
nearly two thousand years. Another argu-
ment for the truth of the Christian reli-
gion arises from the completion of pro-
phecies, of which some preceded Jesus,
and were accomplished in him,and others
were uttered by him, and came to pass
during his life ; such were the treachery
of Judas, and the cowardice and meanness
of Peter ; or within a few years after his
crucifixion; of this kind was the memora-
ble destruction of Jerusalem. The cha-
racter of Christ, and the miracles which
he wrought, are evidences of the divinity
of his mission. On these grounds, if the
question be put " Why are you a Chris-
tian?" the answer has been given by a good
writer, from whom we shall transcribe it.
" Not because I was born in a Christian
country, and educated in Christian princi-
ples; not because IfindtheillustriousBa-
con, Boyle, Locke, Clarke, and Newton,
among the professors and defenders of
Christianity ; nor merely because the sys-
tem itself is so admirably calculated to
mend and exalt human nature ; but be-
cause the evidence accompanying the
Gospel hasconvincedme of its truth. The
secondary causes assigned by unbelievers
do not, in my judgment, account for the
rise, progress, and early triumphs of the
Christian religion. Upon the principles of
scepticism, I perceive an effect without
an adequate cause. 1 therefore stand ac-
quitted to my own reason, though 1 con-
tinue to believe and profess the religion
.of Jesus Christ. Arguing from effects to
causes, 1 think I have philosophy on my
side. And reduced to a choice of difficul-
ties,! encounter not so many, in admitting
the miracles ascribed to the Saviour, as

CHR

<JHR

in the arbitrary supposition and conjec-
tures of his enemies.

" That there once existed such a person
as Jesus Christ; that he appeared in Judea
In the reign of Tiberius; that he taught a
system of moralssuperior to any inculcat-
ed in the Jewish schools; that he was
crucified at Jerusalem ; and that Pontius
Pilate was the Roman governor by whose
sentence he was condemned and execut-
ed; are facts which no one can reasonably
call in question. The most inveterate
Deists admit them without difficulty: and,
indeed, to dispute these facts would be
giving the lie to all history. As well might
we deny the existence of Cicero, as that
of a person by the name of Jesus Christ.
And with equal propriety might we call
in question the orations of the former, as
the discourses of the latter. We are mo-
rally certain that the one entertained the
Romans with his eloquence, and that the
other enlightened the Jews with his wis-
dom. But it is unnecessary to labour these
points,because they are generally conced-
ed. They who affect to despise the evan-
gelists and Apostles profess to reverence
Tacitus, Suetonius, and Pliny. And these
eminent Romans bear testimony to seve-
ral particulars which relate to the person
of Jesus Christ, his influence as the foun-
der of a sect, and his crucifixion. From a
deference to human authority, all there-
fore acknowledge that the Christian reli-
gion derived its name from Jesus Christ.
And many among the Deists are so just to
its merits, as to admit that he taught bet-
ter than Confucius, and practised better
than Socrates or Plato.

** To come then to the question : Why
are you a Christian ? 1 answer, Because
the Christian religion carries with it inter-
nal marks of its truth ; because not only
without the aid, but in opposition to the
civil authority, in opposition to the wit,
the argument, and violence of its enemies,
it made its way, and gained an establish-
ment in the world; because it exhibits the
accomplishment of some prophecies, and
presents others which have been since
fulfilled; and because its author displayed
an example, and performed works, which
bespeak not merely a superior, but a di-
vine character. Upon these several facts I
ground my belief as a Christian. And, till
the evidence on which they rest can be
invalidated by counter evidence, I must
retain my principles and my profession.'*

CHROMATICS, is that part of optics
wh'ch explains the several properties of
the colours of light and of natural bodies.

Before the time of S ir Isaac Newton, the

notions concerning colour were very
vague. Des Cartes accounted colour a
modification of light; and he imagined
that the difference of colour proceeds
from the prevalence of the direct or rota-
tory moti< n of the particles of light. Gri-
inaldi, Dechales, and many others, ima-
gined that the differences of colour de-
pended upon the quick or slow vibrations
of a certain elastic medium, with which
the universe is filled. Rohault conceived
that the different colours were made by
the rays of light entering the eye at dif-
ferent angles with respect to the optic
axis. And Dr. Hooke imagined that co-
lour is caused by the sensation of the ob-
lique or uneven pulse of light; which be-
ing capable of no more than two varieties,
he concluded there could be no more
than two primary colours.

Sir Isaac Newton, in the year 1666, be-
gan to investigate this subject; when find-
ing that the coloured image of the sun,
formed by a glass prism, was of an oblong
and not of a circular form, as, according
to the laws of equal refraction, it ought
to be, he conjectured that light is notho-
mogeneal : but that it consists of rays of
different colours,and endued with divers
degrees of refrangibility. And, from a
farther prosecution of his experiments, lie
concluded that the different colours of bo-
dies arise from their reflectingthis or that
kind of rays most copiously. This method
of accounting for the different colours of
bodies soon became generally adopted,
and still continues to be the most prevail-
ing opinion. It is hence agreed that the
light of the sun, which to us seems white
and perfectly homogeneal, is composed of
no fewer than seven different colours,,
•viz. red, orange, yello\v, green, blue,
purple, and violet or indigo : that a body
which appears of a red colour has the
property of reflecting the red rays more
plentifully than the rest ; and so of the
other colours, the orange, yellow, green.
Sec.: also that a body which appears black,
instead of reflecting, absorbs all or the
most part of the rays that fall upon it;
while, on the contrary, a body which ap-
pears white reflects the greater part of all
the rays indiscriminately, without sepa-
rating them one from another.

The foundation of a rational theory of
colours being thus laid, the next inquiry
was, by what peculiar mechanism, in the
structure of each particular body, it was
fitted to reflect one kind of rays more
than another, and this is attributed by
Sir I. Newton to the density of these bo-
dies. Dr. Hooke remarked, that thin

CHROMATICS.

transparent substances, particularly soap-
water blown into bubbles, exhibited vari-
ous colours, according to their thinness ;
and yet, when they have a considerable
degree of thickness, they appear colour-
less. And Sir Isaac himself had observ-
ed, that as he was compressing two
prisms hard together, in order to make
their sides (which happened to be a little
convex) to touch one another, in the place
of contact they were both perfectly trans-
parent, as if there had been but one con-
tinued piece of glass : but round the point
of contact, where the glasses were a little
separated from each other, rings of differ-
ent colours appeared. And when he af-
terwards, farther te elucidate this matter,
employed two convex glasses of teles-
copes, pressing their convex sides upon
one another, Ive observed several series
of circles or rings of such colours, differ-
ent, and of various intensities, according
to their distance from the common cen-
tral pellucid point of contact.

As the colours were thus found to vary
according to the different distances be-
tween the glass plates, Sir Isaac conceiv-
ed that they proceeded from the different
thickness of the plate of air intercepted
between the glasses ; this plate of air be-
ing, by the mere circumstance of thinness
or thickness, disposed to reflect or trans-
mit the rays of this or that particular co-
lour. Hence, therefore, he concluded,
that the colours of all natural bodies de-
pend on their density, or the magnitude
of their component particles : and hence
also he constructed a table, in which the
thickness of a plate necessary to reflect
any particular colour was expressed in
the millionth parts of an inch.

From a great variety of such experi-
ments, and observations upon them, our
author deduced his theory of colours.
And hence it seems that every substance
in nature is transparent, provided it be
made sufficiently thin ; as gold, the dens-
est substance we know of, when reduc-
ed into thin leaves, transmits a bluish
green light through it. If we suppose any
body, therefore, as gold, for instance, to
be divided into a vast number of plates,
so thin as to be almost perfectly transpa-
rent, it is evident that all, or the great-
est part of the rays, will pass through the
upper plates, and when they lose their
force will be reflected from the under
ones. They will then have the same num-
ber of plates to pass through which they
had penetrated before ; and thus, accord-
ing to the number of those plates through
which theyave obliged to pass, the object;

VOL. III.

appears of this or that colour, just as the
rings of colours appeared different in the
experiment of the two plates, according
to their distance from one another, or the
thickness of the plate of air between them.

This theory of the colours has been il-
lustrated and confirmed by various expe-
riments, made by other philosophers,
Mr. Delaval produced similar effects by
the infusions of flowers of different co-
lours, and by the intimate mixture of the
metals with the substance of glass, when,
they are reduced to very fine parts ; the
more dense metals imparting to the
glass the less refrangible colours, and the
lighter ones those colours that are more
easily refrangible. Dr. Priestley and Mr.
Canton, also, by laying very thin leaves or
slips of the metals upon glass, ivory,
wood, or metal, and passing an electrical
stroke through them, found that the
same effect was produced, viz. that they
were tinged with different colours, ac-
cording to the distance from the point of
explosion.

Mr. Delaval has given also an account
of some experiments made upon the per-
manent colours of opaque substances,
which may prove of great importance in
the arts of dying, &c.

The changes of colour in permanently
coloured bodies, he observes, are pro-
duced by the same laws that take place
in transparent colourless substances; and
the experiments by which they are inves-
tigated consist chiefly of various methods
of uniting the colouring particles into
larger masses, or dividing them into
smaller ones. Sir Isaac Newton made his
experiments chiefly on transparent sub-
stances ; and in the few places where Ite
treats of others, he acknowledges his
want of experiments. He makes the fol-
lowing remark, however, on those bo-
dies which reflect one kind of light and
transmit another, viz. that if these glasses
or liquors were so thick and massy that
no light could get through them, he ques-
tioned whether they would not, like
other opaque bodies, appear of one and
the same colour in all positions of the eye ;
though he could not yet' affirm it
from experience. Indeed it was the opi-
nion of this great philosopher, that all
coloured matter reflects the rays of light,
some reflecting the more refrangible
rays most copiously, and others those,
that are less so ; and that this is at once
the true and only reason of these colours.
He was likewise of opinion, that opaque
bodies reflect the light from their ante-
rior surface, by some power of the body,
evenly diffused over and external te it.

CHR

With respect to transparent coloured bo-
dies, he thus expresses himself: ""A
transparent body, which looks of any co-
lour by transmitted light, may also look
of the same colour by reflected light ;
the light of that colour being reflected by
the farther surface of that body, or by
the air beyond it: and then the reflected
colour will be diminished, and perhaps
cease, by making the body very thick,
and pitching it on the back side to dimi-
nish the reflection of its farther surface,
so that the light reflected from the ting-
ing particles may predominate. In such
cases the colour of the reflected light
will be apt to vary from that of the light
transmitted."

To search out the truth of these opi-
nions, Mr. Delaval entered upon a course
of experiments with transparent colour-
ed liquoi's and glasses, as well as with
opaque and semitransparent bodies. And
frpm these experiments he discovered
several remarkable properties of the co-
louring matter ; particularly, that in trans-
parent coloured substances it does not re-
flect any light ; and when, by intercept-
ing the light which was transmitted, it is
hindered from passing through such sub-
tances, they do not vary from their form-
er colour to any other, but become en-
tirely black.

This incapacity of the colouring par-
ticles of transparent bodies to reflect
light, being deduced from very numerous
experiments, may therefore be taken as
•A general law. It will appear the more
extensive, if it be considered that, for the
most part, the tinging particles of liquors
or other transparent substances, are ex-
tracted from opaque bodies; that the
opaque bodies owe their colours to those
particles in like manner as the trans-
parent substances do ; and that by the
Joss of them they are deprived of their
colours.

Notwithstanding these and many other
experiments, the theory of colour seems
not yet determined with certainty. The
discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, how-
ever, are sufficient to justify the following
aphorisms.

1. All the colours in nature arise from
the rays of light. 2. There are seven
primary colours ; namely, red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
3. Every ray of light may be separated
into these seven primary colours. 4. The
rays of light, in passing through the same
medium, have different degrees of re-
frangibility. 5. The difference in the co-
. lours of light arises from its different re-
frnngibility : that which is the least re-

trangible producing red ; and that which
is the most refrangible violet. 6. By com-
pounding any two of the primary, as red
and yellow, or yellow and blue, the inter-
mediate colour, orange or green, may be
produced. 7. The colours of bodies
arise from their dispositions to reflect one
sort of rays, and to absorb the others ;
those that reflect the least refrangible
rays appearing- red, and those that reflect
the most refrangible violet. 8. Such bo-
dies as reflect two or more sorts of rays
appear of various colours. 9. The white-
ness of bodies arises from their disposi-
tion to reflect all the rays of light pro-
miscuously. 10. The blackness of bo-
dies proceeds from their incapacity to
reflect any of the rays of light. And
from their thus absorbing all the rays
of light that are thrown upon them, it
arises, that black bodies, when exposed
to the sun, become hot sooner than all
others.

Sir Isaac Newton, in the course of his
investigations of the properties of light,
discovered that the lengths of the spaces
occupied in the spectrum by the seven
primary colours exactly correspond to
the lengths of chords that sound the se-
ven notes in the diatonic scale of music ;
which is made evident by an experiment.
On a paper, or other fit substance, in a
darkened room, let a ray of light be re-
fracted by means of a prism into a spec-
trum of some size, marking upon it the
precise boundaries of the several colours,
and it will be found that the spaces by
which the several colours are bounded,
viz. the space containing the red, that
containing the orange, yellow, &c. will
be in exact proportion to the divisions
of a musical chord for the notes of an oc-
tave ; that is, as the intervals of these ; 1
8.5.3.2.3. 9.1 See Co-
7 i V > * > ~S > T J r§ ) 2'
Lotrns, OPTICS, &c.

CHROME, a metal discovered by Vau-
quelin. It exists in the state of an acid,
combined with oxide of lead, in a beauti-
ful mineral named red lead, found in Si-
beria, and with regard to which very dis-
cordant analyses had been given by dif-
ferent chemists. Vauquelin reduced the
metallic acid which he discovered in it to
the metallic acid, and his researches have
been confirmed by those of Klaproth and
Gmelin. It derives its name from the
splendid and numerous colours which it
presents in its saline combinations. It
lias since been discovered in various mi-
7ierals. The native chromate of lead, or
the red lead of Siberia, is generally crys-
tallized in oblique tetrahedral prisms. Its
colour is a fine aurora red ; its lustre

CHR

shining*, and intermediate between ada-
mantine and resinous ; the crystals are
translucid; the fracture is uneven; the
specific gravity 6.0269. It depreciates
before the blow-pipe, and melts into a
blackish scoria. It colours borax green
by fusion. According to \7auquelin, it is
composed of 57.10 of lead, 6.86 of oxy-
gen, and 36.04 of chromic acid. There
is found with the chromate of lead, a mi-
neral of a green colour, in minute crys-
tals, which Vauquelin found to be com-
posed of the oxides of chrome and lead,
and which, as he conjectures, has proba-
bly originated in the decomposition of the
perfect chromate, from some process by
which part of its oxygen has been ab-
stracted.

Native chromate of iron has more late-
ly been found in the department of Var
in France, and likewise in Siberia. This
mineral is massive, of a blackish brown
colour, with no great lustre, and opaque;
its fracture is uneven,* and it is hard and
difficult to break ; its specific gravity is
4.0. It is scarcely fusible before the
blow-pipe, but with borax it melts into a
glass of a fine green colour. According
to an accurate analysis of it, it consists of
63.6 of chromic acid, or perhaps rather
oxide of chrome, and 36 of oxide of iron.
Chrome has been also found in smaller
quantities in other minerals, 'particularly
in some gems, of which it appears to be
the colouring principle. It exists in the
emerald, in the state of green oxide,
and in the spinal ruby, in the state of
acid.

Vauquelin extracted the metal from
the red lead ore, by adding to it muriatic
acid, which combines with the oxide of
lead, and forms a compound that is pre-
cipitated, the chromic acid remaining in
solution. To abstract a little muriatic
acid combined with it, oxide of silver is
cautiously added, and the pure chromic
acid being decanted from the precipitate
of muriate of silver, and evaporated, is
exposed to a very strong heat, excited
by a forge, in a crucible of charcoal,
placed within another of porcelain. It
is thus reduced to the metallic state. It
is to this chemist that we are indebted,
principally, for a knowledge of its pro-
perties.

Chrome is of a white colour inclining
to grey : it is very brittle ; its fracture
presents a radiated appearance, needles
crossing in different directions, with in-
terstices between them Its other physi-
cal qualities have not been determined.
This metal is difficult of fusion. Expos-
ed to the heat nf tho blo\v-pipc, it dor»s

not melt. When fused, by having been
exposed to the intense heat necessary to
its reduction, it presents crystalline fila-
ments, which rise above the metallic
mass. Chrome is not easily acted on by
the acids. Even when reduced to a fine
powder, and treated with concentrated
boiling, nitric acid, it is oxydized with
much difficulty, and communicates to the
acid only a green tinge.

Chrome, in the state of acid, appears
to be more susceptible of combination,
and this acid being obtained without dif-
ficulty from its native combinations, its
chemical relations have been more ex-
amined. Chromic acid is very soluble in
water; the taste of the solution is sharp
and metallic; it is of an orange-red co-
lour ; by evaporation, either spontaneous
or with a gentle heat, it affords crystals
in long slender prisms, of a ruby-red
colour. This acid combines with the
alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides,
forming neutral salts, which are named
chromates.

The combinations of this acid with me-
tallic oxides are in general possessed of
very beautiful colours, jmd are well
adapted to form the finest paints. That
with oxide of lead has an orange yellow,
of various shades; that with mercury, a
vermilion red ; with silver, a carmine
red; with zinc and bismuth, the colours
are yellow ; with copper, cobalt, and an-
timony, they are dull.

CHRONOLOGY, is that science which
relates to time; treats of the division of it
into certain portions, as days, months,
years, centuries ; and the application of
these portions, under various forms and
combinations, as cycles, aeras, &c. to the
elucidation of history. What is proposed
in the present article is, to point out the
chief methods by which the several por-
tions of time have been computed, and
in which they have been employed in as-
certaining the connection, and determin-
ing the dates, of past transactions.

The divisions of time which most pro-
bably first attracted the notice of man- .
kind, as most obvious to their senses,
were those marked by the revolutions of
the heavenly bodies, days, lunar months,
and years: and if these had correspond-
ed so exactly to each other, that every
lunation had consisted uniformly of the
same number of clays, and each year of a
regular number of complete lunations,
the business of chronology would have
been attended with comparatively little
difficulty. In consequence, however, of
variations in the revolutions of the earth,
which if is not requisite here to explain*.

CHRONOLOGY.

it has become necessary to adjust these
periods to each other by certain artificial
divisions. Of these divisions,

The Day claims our first notice. In
common speech, a day means that period
of time, which is included between the
first appearance of light in the morning
and the return of darkness in the evening,
or during which the sun is visible above
the horizon. But the word is used, iu u
more comprehensive sense, to denote the
time of a complete revolution of the
earth round its axis. The former has
been denominated a natural, the latter a
civil, and sometimes a solar, day. The
beginning of the day has been variously
reckoned by different nations. The Chal-
dseans, Syrians, Persians, and Indians,
reckoned the day to commence at sun-
rise. The Jews, also, used this method
for their civil, but began the sacred day
at sun-set : this latter mode was used
likewise by the Athenians, the Arabs,
the Ancient Gauls, and some other Euro-
pean nations. The Egyptians appear to
have had several methods of reckoning
their day; probably the mode varied in
different parts of the country, and in the
same place at different periods. The an-
cient inhabitants of Italy computed the
day from midnight, and in this they have
been followed by the English, French,
Dutch, Germans, Spaniards, and Portu-
guese; modern astronomers, after the
Arabians, count the day from noon.

The day was subdivided by the Jews
and Romans into four parts, which they
denominated watches or vigils; the first
commenced at six in the morning, the
Second at nine, the third at twelve, and
the fourth at three in the afternoon. The
beginning of the first watch was, by the
Jews, called the third hour, and so on
in succession to the fourth watch, which
was reckoned the twelfth hour. The
night was divided in a similar manner.
Other modes of dividing the day have
been in use among different nations; but
that which is now most general in civi-
lized countries is into 24 equal parts
or hours. With respect to the different
inventions which have been used for mea-
suring or distinguishing the hours of the
day, we refer to the articles CLEPSYDRA,
CLOCK, SUX-DIAL, &c.

The Week, is a division of time, of which
it may be proper to take some notice be-
fore we proceed to the month. Various
divisions which might be included under
this denomination have obtained in dif-
ferent countries. The earlier Greeks
divided their month i&to three portions^

often days each : the Northern Chinese
had a week of fifteen days, arid the Mexi-
cans one of thirteen. But the Chaldeans,
and most other Oriental nations, have,
from time immemorial, used the Jewish
week of seven days, which has been
adopted by the Mahommedans, and in-
troduced, with Christianity, to most of
the civilized nations of the world. .In
the Old Testament, the term week is oc-
casionally applied to a period of seven
years, as well as of seven days; and to
this it is necessary to attend, in order to
understand the passages wherein the
word is used in that sense.

The Month. There can be little doubt,
but that this division of time was at first
suggested by the phases, or the periodi-
cal change in the appearances of the
moon, and consequently, that in ancient
computations the months were invariably
lunar. The difficulty, however, of ad-
justing this month to the annual revolu-
tion of the earth, led, with the improve-
ment of astronomy, to the invention of
other divisions uneler this name. Months
are now divided into astronomical and
civil. The astronomical months, with
which chronology is concerned, are mea-
sured by the revolutions of the moon,
and are either periodical or synodical.
The periodical lunar month is composed
of the time which elapses between the
departure of the moon from any part of
her orbit, and her return to the same
point, which is 27 days, 7 hours, and 43
minutes. The synodical lunar month is
reckoned from one conjunction of the
sun with the moon to another. This pe-
riod is not always the same, being sub-
ject to the variation occasioned by the
motion of the sun eastward on the eclip-
tic : a mean lunation consists of 29 clays,
12 hours, and 44 minutes. This was the
lunar month mostly in use in ancient
times. The civil month is that artificial
space of time, by means of which the
solar year is divided into twelve parts :
these months, which were first ordained
by Julius Csesar, consist of thirty, or thir-
ty-one days each, with the exception of
February, which commonly contains
twenty-eight, and every fourth year
twenty-iiin6f days.

Years. The year may be termed the
largest natural division of time. As the
diurnal revolution of the earth would na-
turally lead to the division into days, and
the phases of the moon, with a little at-
tention, to that into months, so the an-
nual motion of the earth round the sun,
which would-be marked by the periodiV

CHRONOLOGY.

cal return of certain appearances, sea-
sons, &c. would in due course lead to the
adoption of this larger division. At
what time this took place is uncertain,
but probably not before considerable ad-
vances had been made in astronomical
science. It was long1, however, after its
first adoption, before it attained to any
thing like an accurate form. The
most ancient measure of the year, of
which we know, consisted of twelve lu-
nar months, which, for the facility of
computation, being all considered as
equal in length, and to contain thirty days
each, amounted to 360 days. It is conjec-
tured that this gave rise to the division of
the ecliptic, which still obtains, into 360
equal parts or degrees.

This luni-solar year probably had its
rise in Chaldaea, or Egypt ; we learn, at
least, from the testimony of Herodotus,
that it was used in the latter country.
Hence, with the diffusion of science, it was
carried into other regions, and very gene-
rally adopted. It was early in use among
the Indians, Chinese, the Medes, and Per-
sians, and the ancient Greeks. Its measure
being, however, inaccurate, containing
five days and a quarter more than the lu-
nar, and as much less than the true solar
year, and this defect becoming every year
more perceptible from the retrocession
of the seasons, &c. it was soon consider-
ed necessary to subject it to some revi-
sion. The Thebans are supposed to have
been the first who undertook its correc-
tion, by making an annual addition of
five days to the luni-solar year. Thales
introduced this improvement into the an-
cient Grecian year, and it was adopted,
with some trifling variations in particular
instances, into the Indian, the Chinese,
and the Jewish year.

The Roman year, as regulated by Ro-
mulus, and afterwards reformed by his
successor Numa, was reckoned by lunar
months, and adjusted to the seasons by
a number of intercalary days. It consist-
ed often lunar months, of which Decem-
ber was the last, and to these two whole
intercalary months were added, but not
inserted in the calendar. This year be-
gan at first in March ; but the Decemviri,
\vho undertook its reformation, changed
the order of the months into that in which
they now stand, introduced the two in-
tercalary months, January and February,
into the calendar, and made January the
first month of the year.

Owing to the ignorance, or the care-
lessness, of the Pontifices Maximi, to
whose care the regulation of the interca-

lary days was committed, the year was
reduced to such disorder in the time of
Julius Caesar, that the winter months had
fallen back to the autumn. To restore
them to their proper season, Caesar
formed a year of 445 days, which has
been styled the year of confusion. With
the assistance of Sosigenes, a mathemati-
cian of Alexandria, he afterwards, in the
year B. C. 45, instituted a solar year of
365 days 6 hours, which is now known
under the name of the Julian year. To
adjust this year to the annual revolution
of the earth, which is six hours and
some minutes more than 365 days, the
length of the ordinary year, a day was
appointed to be intercalated every fourth,
year in the month of February : this day,
from its position in the Roman calendar,
was called bissextile, a name which has
also been given to the year in which the
intercalation takes place.

The Julian year, although it approach-
es very near the truth, is not, however,
perfectly correct. The true time of the
annual revolution of the sun in the eclip-
tic is 365 days, 5 hours, and nearly 49
minutes, which falls short by a few mi-
nutes of the time assumed in the Julian
year. How trifling soever this difference
might at first appear, it amounted in a
hundred and thirty-one years to a whole
day : in consequence of this, the vernal
equinox, which Sosigenes, in the first
year of the Julian correction, observed to
fall on the 25th of March, had gone back
in A. D. 325, at the time of the council
of Nice, to the 21st, and in A. D. 1582,
to the llth of March. To remedy this
growing defect, Pope Gregory XIII.
caused the calendar to undergo another
correction. In A. D. 1580, he ordered
ten days to be cut out of the month of
October, so that the fourth was reckoned
the 15th day : and to prevent such retro-
cession in future, in addition to the Ju-
lian regulation with respect to the bissex-
tile year, he ordained that the years
1600", 2000, 2400, and every fourth c'entu-
tury in succession, should have an inter-
calation of a day, but that in the other
centuries, 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, &c.
the day should be omitted, and those
years remain common years. This re-
gulation comes so near the truth, that the
only correction it will require will be
the suppression of a day and a half in five
thousand years.

The Gregorian year, or, as it is vulgar-
ly called, the new style, was immediately
adopted in Spain, Portugal, and part of
Italy. It was introduced into France in

CHRONOLOGY.

October of the same year, the tenth of
which month was, by an ordinance of
Henry HI. reckoned the twentieth clay.
In Germany it was adopted by the Catho-
lic states in 1583, but the" Protestant
states adhered to the old calendar until
the year 1700. Denmark also adopted
it about this period, and Sweden in
1753. It was not used in England before
1752, when, by act of Parliament, the
style was changed, and the third of Sep-
tember was reckoned the fourteenth, the
difference having by this time increased
to eleven days. Russia is the only coun-
try in Europe in which the old mode of
reckoning- is still in use.

The want of some specific standard,
which could be regarded as common to
all nations, has occasioned great diversity
in different countries in fixing the be-
ginning of the year. The Chaldaeans and
Egyptians reckoned their years from the
autumnal equinox. The Jews also reck-
oned their civil year from this period,
but began their ecclesiastical year in the
spring. Gemschid, the King "of Persia,
ordered the year in that country to com-
mence at the vernal equinox. In Sweden
the year formerly commenced at the
winter solstice. The Greeks used differ-
ent methods, some of the states begin-
ning the year at the vernal, others at the
autumnal equinox, and some at the sum-
mer solstice. The Roman year at one
time began in March, but afterwards was
made to commence in January. The new
year's day of the Church of Rome is fix-
ed on the Sunday nearest the full moon
of the vernal equinox. In England, the
year began in March until A. D. 1752,
when the act of Parliament which altered
the style ordained it to commence on the
first of January.

Having thus given a short account of
the lunar and solar years which have
been mostly in use, and an acquaintance
with which is of most consequence in
chronology, it will be proper just to no-
tice some combinations of years which are
mentioned in ancient history, and there-
fore proper to be known.

Lustra. The Romans sometimes reck-
oned by lustra, a period of five years,
which derived its name from a census
instituted by Servius Tullius, which was
to be paid by the Roman people every
fifth ye-ar.

The Olympiads were, however, the
most remarkable of these combinations.
They consisted of four Grecian vears,
and derived their names from the pub-
lie games celebrated every fourth year

at Olympia, in Peloponnesus. These
games were instituted in honour of Ju-
piter, but at what time, or by whom, is
not known. After they had been ne-
glected and discontinued for some time,
they were restored by Iphitus, King of
Elis, in the year B. C. 776 ; and it is from
this date that the Olympiads are reckon-
ed in chronology.

Cycles are fixed intervals of time, com-
posed of the successive revolutions of a
certain number of years. The lustra and
the olympiads may perhaps be included
under this name, but the term is more
commonly appropriated to larger inter-
vals, connected with the periodical re-
turn of tertain circumstances and appear-
ances. The great use made of cycles in
chronology requires that they be parti-
cularly noticed.

From the defective nature of the
Greek calendar, the Olympic year, as it
has been called, was subject to consider-
able variation ; and, from the retroces-
sion of the months which it occasioned,
producing a gradual change of the sea-
sons when the games were, to be cele-
brated, led to much inconvenience.
Cleostrates, a mathematician of Tene-
dos, endeavoured to give it a more per-
fect form, by inventing a cycle or' eight
years : this, however, being computed by
lunar years, still left the calendar subject
to great inaccuracies. To rectify these,
Meton, a mathematician of great celebri-
ty, invented —

The Lunar Cycle, a period of nineteen
solar years, at the end of which interval
the sun and moon return to very nearly
the same part of the heavens. This im-
provement was at the time received with
universal approbation ; but not being
perfectly accurate, was afterwards cor-
rected by Eudoxus, and subsequently by
Calippus, whose improvements modern
astronomers have adopted.

The use of this cycle was discontinued
when the games, for the regulation of
which it was composed, ceased to be
celebrated. The Council of Nice, how-
ever, wishing to establish some method
for adjusting the new and full moons to
the course of the sun, with the view of
determining the time of Easter, adopted
it as the best adapted to answer the pur-
pose : and from its great utility, they
caused the numbers of it to be writ-
ten on the calendar in golden letters,
which has obtained for it the name of
the golden number. The golden number
for any year is found as follows : — The
first year of the Christian sera corresponds

CHRONOLOGY.

to the second of this cycle; if then to a
given year of this xru one be added, and
the sum be divided by 19, the quotient
will denote the number of cycles which
have revolved since the commencement
of the Christian rera, and the remainder
will be the golden number for the given
year. e. g. If the golden number of the
present year (1808) be required, one be-
ing adde'd, the sum will be 1809 ; this be-
ing1 divided by 19, will give 95 for the
quotient, and 4 for the remainder, or
golden number sought.

The Solar Cycle is another of these pe-
riods, the inventor of which is at present,
however, unknown. It consists of 28
years, at the expiration of which the sun
returns to the sign and degree of the
ecliptic which he hud occupied at the
conclusion of the preceding period, and
the days of the week correspond to the
same days of the month as at that time.
It is used to determine the Sunday, or
dominical, letter, which we shall briefly
explain.

In our present calendars the days of
the week are distinguished by the first
seven letters of the alphabet: A, 13, C,
D, E, F, G ; and the rule for applying
these letters is, invariably, to pub A for
the first day of the year, whatever it be,
B for the second, and so in succession to
the seventh. Should the first of January
be Sunday, the dominical, or Sunday, let-
ter for that year will be A, the Monday
letter B, &c. and as the number of the
letters is the same as that of the days of
the week, A will fall on every Sunday, B
on every Monday, &c. throughout the
year. Had the year consisted of 364 days,
making an exact number of weeks, it is
obvious that A would always have stood
for the dominical letter : the year con-
taining, however, one day more; it follows
that the dominical letter of the succeed-
ing year will be G. For SundayJbeingthe
first day of the preceding year will be
also the last, and the first Sunday in the
next year will fallen the seventh day,
and will be marked by the seventh letter,
or G. This retrocession of the letters
will, from the same cause, continue
every year, so as to make F the domini-
cal letter of the third, &.c. If every year
were common, the process would con-
tinue regularly, and a cycle of seven years
would suffice to restore the same letters
to the same days as before. But the in-
tercalation of a day, every bissextile or
fourth year, has occasioned a variation in
this respect. The bissextile year con-
taining 366, instead of 365 days, will

throw tlie dominical letter of the follow*
ing year back two letters ; so that, as in
the present year (1808), if the dominical
letter at the beginning of the year be C,
the dominical letter of the next year wilf
be, not B, but A. This alteration is not
effected by dropping a letter altogether,
but by changing the dominical letter at
the end of February, where the interca-
lation of a day takes place. Thus, in the
present year, C is the dominical letter in
January and February, but B is substi-
tuted for it in March, and continues to
be the dominical letter through the re-
mainder of the year. In consequence
of this change every fourth year, twenty-
eight years must elapse, before a com-
plete revolution can take place in the
dominical letter, and it is on this circum-
stance that the period of the solar cycle
is founded. A table constructed to shew
the dominical letters, for any given years
of one of these cycles, will answer for the
corresponding years in every successive
cycle. The first year of the Christian
sera corresponds to the ninth of this cy-
cle ; if, therefore, to any given year of
the Christian zera nine be added, and the
sum be divided by 28, the quotient will
denote the number of the revolutions of
the cycle since the ninth year B. C. and
the remainder will be the year of the cy-
cle. If there be no remainder, the year
of the cycle will be the last, or twenty-
eight, e. §: Nine being added to 1808,
makes 1817 ; this sum being divided by
28, gives a quotient of 64 for the revolu-
tions of the cycle, and a remainder of 25
for the year of the cycle. There is ano-
ther cycle in use, called

The Cycle of Infection. It consists of
fifteen years, and is. derived from the Ro-
mans. Learned men are not agreed as to
the origin of it, but the most probable opi-
nion is, that the return of this period was
appointed for the payment of some public
taxes or tributes. The first year of this
cycle is made to correspond to the year
SBC. If therefore to any given year of
the Christian XVA 3 be added, and the sum
be divided by 15, the remainder will be
the year of tliis cycle. There is however
another mode of calculating it. This cycle
was established by Consj:antine A. D. 312;
if therefore from the given year of the
Christian sera 312 be subtracted, and the
remainder be divided by 15, the year of
this cycle will be obtained. In either of
these ways, if there be no remainder, the
indiction will be 15. We subjoin an ex-
ample, calculated by each. of the methods
above specified.

CHRONOLOGY.

1808
3

15)1811(120
15

1808
312

15)1496(99
135

31
30

C the indie; ion for the
£ present year

The Julian Period, some acquaintance
with which is indespensable in the study
of chronology, will be easily undertood
from the preceding account ofthe cycles.
It is formed by the combination of the
three, by multiplying the numbers 28, 19,
and 15, of the cycles of the sun, moon,
and indiction, into each other. The total
of years thus produced is 7980, of which
the Julian period consists, at the expira-
tion of which, and not sooner, the first
years of each of those cycles will again
come together. This period was invented
by Joseph Scaliger, as one by which all
aeras, epochs, and computations of time,
might readily be adjusted. The first year
ofthe Christian sera corresponds to the
4714th of the Julian period, anditextends
us far back as 706 years beyond the com-
mon date ofthe creation 4004. The year
of the Julian period, corresponding with
any given year before or since the com-
mencement of the Christian sera, may
easily be fonnd by the following rule.
If the year required be of the latter
kind, add to it 4713, the number or years
of the Julian period elapsed before the
Christian aera, and the sum will be the
year required. If it be of the former,
subtract the year B. C. from 4714, and the
difference will give it.

This period has been esteemed by many
to be of the highest importance in chro-
nology, as affording a common standard
for the adjustment of different epochs.
Modern chronologers are not however so
warm in their admiration of it as their
predecessors have been. A common
standard is unquestionably ofthe highest
consequence in the comparison of dates
and aeras, and in the general arrangement
and division of time ; and from its great
utility, and the necessity of its frequent
application, it is of importance that it
should be as simple as possible in its na-
ture and construction. The Julian period
is liable to objection on the latter score,
as being rather complicated in its forma-
tion ; and its necessity is now altogether
superseded by the very general adoption

of the Christian sera as the standard of
time. Any events or aeras, prior or sub-
sequent to its commencement, may easily
be computed by it, and the date of them
be impressed in the memory with very
little exertion or difficulty.

It remains that we give some account of

Epochs and JEras, terms which con-
stantly recur in history, and the elucida-
tion of which belongs to the province of
chronology. An epoch is a certain point,
generally determined by some remarka-
ble event, from which time is reckoned:
and the years computed from that period
are denominated an xra. The birth of
Christ is considered as an epoch — the
years reckoned from that event are called
the Christian aera.

In sacred chronology, the first and most
remarkable epoch is that of the creation
ofthe world. As learned men could not
agree as to the precise time when this
took place, the folly of reckoning from it
as a standard soon became appearent, and
the practice was in consequence aban-
doned. Archbishop Usher, whose scrip-
ture chronology is adopted in our Eng-
lish Bibles, fixes this event in the year
4004 before Christ. Plavfair places it in
4007.

The universal deluge forms another
epoch, this is placed by 'Usher in the year
B. C. 2349. A third sacred epoch is" the
call of Abraham, which happened, accord-
ing to the same learned authority, B. C.
1921. The next epoch is the departure
ofthe Israelites from Egypt, which Usher
places B. C. 1491.

In profane history, we shall first notice
the epoch of the Argonautic expedition,
an event much celebrated in ancient his-
tory, and of some importance in chrono-
logical discussion, from being adopted by-
Sir Issac Newton as the foundation of his
system of chronology. The date of this
transaction has been placed in the year
1225 B. C. but in this chronologers are
not agreed.

The destruction of Troy forms another
remarkable epoch. Considerable uncer-
taintly prevails asto the exact time when
this event, as well as the preceding, took
place. Playfair fixes it in the year B C,
1184.

The aera ofthe Olympiads we have no-
ticed above, and it will be unnecessary to
give any farther account of it here. The
epoch ofthe building of Rome is the next
that claims our attention. From the total
want of early records, and other necessa-
ry documents for deciding the question,
the date of this event is involved in the

CHRONOLOGY.

obscurity common to many other remote
occurrences. The Roman writers them-
selves, and all who have followed them
on the subject, differ widely respecting
it. Polybius fixes it in the year B. C.
751. Cato, and others, one year earlier.
Terentius Varro places it in 753 B. C.
Fabius Pictor, who is followed by Diodo-
rus Siculus, assigns it to 747 B. C. Sir
Isaac Newton adopts the year 627 B. C.
and Playfair, after Varro, whose computa-
tion was used by the Roman Emperors
in their public instruments, places it in
the year B. C. 753. Great use is made
of this epoch in the histories of ancient
Rome, and the historical student will
do well to ascertain, if possible, what opi-
nion the author he may be perusing
adopts, and to what year of the Christian
sera the first year of Rome, according to
his author, corresponds. The dates of
the events will by this method be accu-
rately ascertained as he proceeds. The
Romans sometimes reckoned the year
from the establishment of the consular
dignity, and afterwards from the years of
the Emperors.

The aera of Nabonassar is another of
those standards by which the dates of
events in some histories are regulated.
Nabonassar was the founder of the Ba-
bylonish monarchy. This aera is reckoned
from the commencement of his reign,
which is placed in the year B. C. 747, of
the Julian period 3967, and extends as
far down as the death of Alexander. The
Nabonassarean year consists of 12 months
of 30 days each, and five intercalary days,
making in all 365 days.

The aera of the Seleucidae, or, as it is
sometimes called, the year of the con-
tracts, is reckoned from the establish-
ment of Seleucus, one of Alexander's
generals, after that conqueror's death, in
the empire of Babylon, and is reckoned
from the year B. C. 312. It is generally
supposed to have begun in the spring.
It was used in a large district of Asia,
and adopted by the Jews.

The Spanish sera, founded on a division
of the Roman provinces among the Tri-
umviri, was long in use in Spain and Af-
rica, and was adopted in the dates of the
principal councils and synods held in those
countries. It is reckoned from the first
of January B. C. 38. This was afterwards
superseded by

The Christian aera. Learned men have
differed in opinion with respect to the
exact time of the birth of Christ, some
placing it four, others seven, years earlier
'banthefii-st yea" of "he Christian sn'a.
VOL, TIT

The uncertainty which exists upon this
point arises from the aera not having been
used until so many centuries had elapsed,
that it was impossible to fix the date with
accuracy. This is, however, of very little
consequence in the application of this
sera to chronological purposes, for all are
agreed as to the numerical date of every
year, the year 1808, for instance, being
universally' received as the year 1808 of
the Christian aera, although probably not
the exact measure of the time which has
elapsed from the birth of Christ. This
aera was invented about the year 527 by
Dionysius, a Roman abbot, who reckon-
ed the first year of it to correspond with
the 4714th of the Julian period. It may
be useful to give the reader a view of the
years of the other principal ?eras which
correspond to the first of this : according
to Playfair, (who, it is to be observed,
differs in many respects from other chro-
nologers, but is, nevertheless, a most re-
spectable authority) these are the 4008th
year of the world, the first year of the
195th Olympiad, the 754th year of Rome,
the 749th of the Nabonassarean sera, the
313th of the Seleucidx, the 46th Julian
year, and the 39th of the Spanish aera.

The aera of Dioclesian was used pretty
generally by the Christians previous to
the invention of the Christian aera. It is
dated from the year A. D. 284, and
probably took its rise from the persecu-
tion under that Emperor, although its
date is computed from the first year of
his reign.

The Hegira, which may be called the
Mohammedan aera, is founded upon the
flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Me-
dina, to escape the persecution of his ene-
mies, and is computed by his followers
from A. D. 622. The beginning of their
year is however made to correspond with
the 16th day of July. In comparing any
year of this rera, therefore, with the cor-
responding year of the Christian aera, it
will be necessary to bear this in mind be-
fore it can be done with accuracy. The
same may also be observed with regard
to some of the other aeras, the beginnings
of the years of which do not exactly cor-
respond with that of the Julian year.

The Persian sera, or the aera of Yezde-
jerd,isthe last we shall notice. Yezdejerd
was the last of the Persian monarchs who
was subdued by the Saracens. Accord-
ing to the opinion of the most reputable
modern chronologers, this aera commenc-
ed in June, A. D. 632, corresponding with
the beginning of the eleventh year of the
Hegira, and with the first year of the

A a

CHK,

CHR

reign of Yezdejerd. The years of this sera,
like the Nabonassarean, consists of 12
months of 30 days, with an addition of
5 intercalary days at the end, making in
all 365 days.

The limits of our plan will not allow us
to enter more minutely into the details of
this important science. For these we
must refer to separate treatise* on the
subject. The abstract which is here
given will, however, be found sufficient
for all the general purposes of the histo-
rical student. We have purposely re-
frained from giving a chronological table
of remarkable events, as such tables are
to be procured with very little trouble.
Various ingenious methods have been in-
vented, of associating the name of some
remarkable event with the date of its oc-
currence, with the view of impressing it
on the memory ; for some account of
these, we must refer to the article ME-
MORY ARTIFICIAL.

CHRONOMETER, an instrument or
machine for measuring time. The word
is more particularly used by workmen
and navigators to denote a watch, or
portable machine, in which, by the na-
ture of the escapement and the com-
pensations for heat and cold, mean time
is or ought to be kept with sufficient
accuracy to determine the longitude at
sea.

The relation between time and longi-
tude will be fully explained hereafter: it
will therefore be sufficient in this place
to remind the reader, that the rotation
of the earth upon its axis brings the seve-
ral places upon its surface, in succession,
oppos:tt, the sun, causing day and night ;
so -hat the absolute instant of noon, or
of any other determined apparent time
of the day, at eacli place must be earlier,
at a place which lies to the eastward
of another, with which that place may
be compared. From tin's general fact it
follows, that allowing 24 hours for the
whole rotation of the earth, and pro-
portionally for every smaller part of the
rotation, we may determine ^provided
the apparent time at two places be
known) what is the difference of longi-
tude between them- Thus, if a chrono-
meter set to the time at Greenwich were
to be carried to Petersburg!!, in Russia,
it would indicate time two hours laier
than the clocks at Greenwich ; that is to
say, it wouid shew when it was noon at
Greenwich, instead of when at Peters-
Imrg'h The obvious conclusion would
be, that the sun arrives at the meridian
of Petersburgh earlier, and consequently

that this town lies more easterly than
Greenwich ; and as two hours are in pro-
portion to 24 hours, so is 360°, the earth's
circumference, to 30°, the longitude of
St. Petersburg, reckoned from Green-
wich. Upon the same principle it is, that
the clocks in a large town ought not to
indicate the*same time. Thus the clocks
at St. Paul's, St. Clement's, St. Martin's,
and St. George's, Hanover Square, in
London, ought to strike each four seconds
after the other ; and this difference, it
may be added, would nearly vanish, if
heard from any of the westerly stations,
on account of the time employed for the
passage of sound ; and for the same rea-
son it would be nearly doubled in the op-
posite direction.

From the intimate relation which sub-
sists between the construction of watches
and clocks, the similitude of the escape-
ments, and the common principles upon
which the compensations for heat and
cold are effected in each, we shall ex-
plain the principles of each under the
general article HOROLOGE ; and at pre-
sent we shall only give an account of
the nature of the expedients adopted to
produce superior accuracy in these port-
able machines.

The train of wheels, which constitutes
so large a part of every time-piece, must
necessarily transmit the force of the
first mover with periodical irregularities,
arising from oblique actions of their teeth
upon each other; and these irregulari-
ties will be subject to other variations,
arising from the greater or less degree of
fluidity in the oil applied to the pivots and
elsewhere. The first mover also in a
portable machine being a spring will be
more rigid, and consequently act with
greater power when cold than when hot.
The balance, or vibrating measurer of
the time, is a wheel, or equivalent piece,
fixed on an axis, upon which it could
freely turn ; but this liberty is restrained
by a fine spring", called the pendulum
spring, which is fastened to the axis,
and after taking several turns round
without touching' it, the other end of the
spring is fixed to the frame of the ma-
chine. By this contrivance the balance
will, if not prevented, come to rest in one
particular position ; and if at any time"
disturbed, it will only vibrate each way
from the line of quiescence, performing
larger or smaller arcs, according to the
disturbing force. This force in a watch
or time-keeper is communicated from the
train ; most commonly during the time oi
each vibration : and the machinery or

CHRONOMETER,

Contrivance, by or through which the
successive impulscs,or actions, are made,
is called a 'scapement or ESCAPEMEXT,
several of which are described at the ar-
ticles referred to.

According to the nature of the escape-
ment, and the part of the vibrating arc
at which the impulses are applied, the
vibrations of the balance may be made
to employ a longer or shorter time than
they would have employed if the balance
had'been separate from the works. Thus,
in the common watch, these impulses
quicken the vibrations ; and consequent-
ly an increase in the maintaining force
will make the watch go faster ; as may
be easily tried by gently forcing the
key in the opposite direction to winding
up.

If the balance and its spring were to
continue unchanged in all temperatures,
and under all circumstances, and if its
long and short vibrations measured equal
times when separate from the machine,
it would only be required that the escape-
ment should be so constructed as neither
to accelerate nor retard them. But none
of these conditions can be had in the or-
dinary structure of watches, and in the
superior time-pieces considerable diffi-
culties are found in the attempt to obtain
them.

By the natural contraction, to which all
bodies are subject when cooled, the di-
ameter of the balance will be less the
lower the temperature : it will therefore
be more easily carried by the vibrating
forces, and will then vibrate more quick-
ly-

The spring attached to the balance,
which is called the pendulum spring, will
likewis^ act with greater force when
cold, and on this account also the vibra-
tions will be quicker.

The remedies for these causes of im-
perfection are the following:

1. The Remontoire. As the irregu-
larities in the transmission of force from
the main spring are certainly increased
by the number of wheels in the train, it
was proposed, in the infancy of the art,
to detach the last wheel, or that nearest
the balance, or time measurer, from the
rest, and to move this by a separate spring
or weight: so that in this contrivance the
time measurer is acted upon by one single
wheel, and the rest of the train is employ-
ed in winding up the secondary first
mover at short intervals, such, for exam-
ple, as every half minute. We shall also
have to mention some escapements, in
which the winding up is performed in

every single vibration. With regard to
remontoires, it may be remarked, that
they either greatly shorten, or else de-
stroy the periodical irregularities of the
train, and those of the main-spring; but
that with regard to the innuence of oil,
and other causes of more permanent dif-
ference, their advantage is not very con-
siderable, because the remedy is not ap-
plied where the motion is quickest.

Whether the irregular action of the
maintaining power be diminished by the
remontoire or not, it is desirable that the
impulse on the balance, through the es-
capement, should affect the natural mea-
sure of its vibrations as little as possible;
or rather that it should tend to equalise
them when the arcs of vibration vary.
Some attention, but not much, has been
paid to the equalizing quality of an es-
capenifnt, principally by making the
faces of the pallets of a figure suitable to
that effect ; but these are now for the
most part abandoned, and the method of
applying the force constitutes the dis-
tinguishing feature in this part of our mo-
dern chronometers. If a balance be set
to vibrate by the mere action of its pen-
dulum spring, its motion will soon de-
cay ; but if we suppose a lever or pallet
to proceed from its axis, and a maintain-
ing power to be applied to this, it is ob-
vious, that if the power meet the pallet in
its progress from the point of quiescence,
it will shorten the time, and also the arc
of that semi-vibration ; and, again, that if
the power follow the pallet in its pro-
gress towards the point of quiescence, it
will drive it home sooner, and conse-
quently will shorten the time of that se-
mi-vibration; and that actions contrary to
these would lengthen the times. If,there-
fore, the action itself, which may be con-
sidered as an accelerating force, be not
applied on both sides of the point of qui-
escence through a certain arc, determin-
able from the circumstances, the main-
taining power, when it comes to be ap-
plied, will alter the time ; and if this va-
ry, the time must also vary. Now the
remedy at present adopted is, to make
the balance vibrate through a very large
arc, such as a semicircle or more, and to
follow the pallet in each returning vibra-
tion by a strong power exerted through a
very small arc, as, for example, 15° or
16°. By this contrivance the balance will
vibrate at perfect liberty, out and home,
through two semicircles, or 360°, except-
ing the small part during which the im-
pulse is given; and if the impulse vary,
the arc of vibration will vary, and with it

CHRONOMETER.

•l fie time, unless the spring be made of
a certain definite length, or tapered in
its thickness according to the experi-
ence which many artists in this country
possess.

The escapement generally used in our
best chronometers, as we shall hereafter
see, consists of a toothed wheel at the
end of the train, which is prevented from
running down by a detent or hook, and
of two pallets, a longer and a shorter,
fixed upon the verge or axis of the ba-
lance. These pallets are so placed, that
when the face of the longer pallet has
just arrived before one of the teeth of
the wheel, the shorter pallet strikes out
the hook, and allows the wheel to push
forward the longer pallet with its tooth,
during which action, the hook falls again
into its place, to catch the succeeding
tooth. The balance therefore proceeds
in its vibration, and returns again with-
out disturbing the train ; because the
short pallet does not strike out the hook
in its backward course, but only acts on
a slender spring, resembling those for-
merly used in the jacks of * harpsichords.
In this manner the vibrations are kept
up ; and so little do the variations in
the maintaining power affect the rate,
when all the adjustments are made, that
if the main spring be let down to only a
small part of its ordinary tension, these
time-pieces will keep the same rate for
many hours together.

However perfect, practically speaking,
the application of the maintaining power
may be, yet if the balance and its spring
be subject to vicissitudes from heat and
cold, it will be in vain to expect accuracy.
There are two ways of correcting this
compound time-measurer. The first,
which was invented by Peter Leroy,con-
sists in causing the balance to enlarge it-
self, instead ot contracting by heat ; by
which means the spring, when in the
state of greater rigidity, has more work to
do ; and the other acts by lengthening
or shortening the spring, when cold or
heat may have given it more or less of
force. This was invented by Harrison,
and depends on the well-known fact, that
a short spring is stiffer than a longer; so
that by shortening his spring at the time
when it was weakened by heat, and the
balance enlarged by the same cause, he
gave it the stiffness requisite to compen-
sate for these alterations ; and the same
contrivance produced the contrary effect
in cold temperatures. As we shall more
fully exhibit these inventions under the
article HOROLOGY, it is only necessary
to. observe, tbat Peter Leroy constructed

his first time-piece with fluid thermome-
ters on the balance, and that he also in-
vented our present expansion balance ot
brass and steel, soldered or fused togeth-
er in the rim, which was afterwards in-
troduced and brought to great perfection
by Arnold.

Machines, made upon the principles
here cursorily pointed out, have measur-
ed time to a wonderful degree of perfec-
tion; and from the immense maritime
trade of the British empire, and the sci-
entific disposition of many wealthy indi-
viduals, the demand has been so great, as
to have produced a very great number
of able workmen, fully equal to their
construction, at the same time that the
prices have been considerably reduced.
Most sea commanders of any respecta-
bility are provided with two or more of
them.

Amongthe other causes of irregularity
in time measurers, the resistance of the
air has been occasionally considered by
authors. But artists seem to suppose, ei-
ther that it is a constant quantity , or that
its variations are not considerable enough
to be brought into the account. The
very accurate performance of some chro-
nometers, and the steady going of astro -
nomical clocks, seem to give weight to
this supposition : but on the other hand
it may be remarked,that though the slow
motion of heavy pendulums vibrating1
through 'small arcs in astronomical clocks
must be subject to very little resistance
indeed from the air, yet it does not fol-
low that the rapid vibrations of a balance
may not be affected by this cause; and
the extreme precision ofsome chronome
ters will not, perhaps, be admitted as a
very strong argument, when we consider
that the changes from barometrical causes
may have compensated each other, and
that the most perfect machines will vary
as much as one second per day, from
causes which have not been yet clearly
detected, though these are probably re-
solved into that before us. We are
more particularly led to these reflection?
by a communication from Mr. Manton, of
Davies-street, who found by experiment
that a chronometer, which was going up-
on a gaining rate of five seconds per day,
did increase its arc of vibration by an ad-
ditional 50 degrees immediately upon the
air being exhausted; and that being kept
in vacuo, its rate became 37 seconds per
day, the gain being 34 seconds upon the
former rate. He nee it follows, that as the
difference between the highest and the
lowest stations of the barometer indicate
a change of about one-fourteenth part in

CHR

the density of the air, the correspondent
change per day, in the rate, may be two
seconds and a half, or about one second
per inch. Hence it may happen that a
capital time-keeper shall indicate a more
steady rate from week to week than from
day to day.

The causes of imperfection in chrono-
meters, which still call for farther exer-
tions of sagacity in our artists, are, 1. The
spring gradually tires or falls off from its
strength, and neither the law of this vari-
ation nor its remedy are known. The ef-
fects of this change are, that all the ad-
justments are disturbed by it. 2. There
is great reason to apprehend that the ex-
pansion-bars of brass and steel do change
in Jheir relative powers of flexure by
their continued action on each other,
though it is probable they settle at last.
3. The wear of the acting parts is uncer-
tain, and will affect the time of striking
out the detent and the arc of impulse. 4.
No certain rules have been given, or are
perhaps known, for making all the vi-
brations equal in time. If we suppose
the long and short vibrations to be at first
adjustable, with certainty, to equal times,
not only for the extremes, but for all the
means or intermediate arcs, it will not fol-
low that the falling off from wear or from
tiring, or from change in the balance, will
continue to be accompanied by the same
isochronism. 5. The best artists find
very great difficulty in adjusting a pocket
chronometer for all positions, preserving
at the same time the other needful ad-
justments. See ESCAPEMENT, HOROLOGT,
PENDULUM, TBAIN, and the articles
thence referred.

CHRYSALIS, in natural history, a state
of rest and seeming insensibility, which
butterflies, moths, and several other kinds
of insects, must pass through, before they
arrive at their winged or most perfect
state. The first state of these animals is
in the caterpillar or reptile form ; then
they pass into the chrysalis-state, where-
in they remain, immoveably fixed to one
spot, and surrounded with a case or co-
vering, which is generally of a conical
figure ; and, lastly, after spending- the
usual time in this middle state, they throw
off the external case wherein they lay
imprisoned, and appear in their most per-
fect and winged form of butterflies, or
flies. See CATERPILLAR.

CHRYSANTHEMUM, in botany, a ge-
nus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Super-
flua class and order. Natural order of
Composite Dioscoidese. Corymbiferae,
Jussieu. Calyx, hemispherical, imbricat-
ed ; the marginal scales membranaceous j

pappus margined; receptacle naked.
There are twenty -seven species. One of
these, the Chrysanthemum leucanthe-
mum, or ox-eyed daisy, has been intro-
duced from Europe, and become natura-
lized in the United States ; it has in fact
become one of the most troublesome and
pernicious weeds which infest our coun-
try. It covers hundreds of acres of
ground with its white flowers, in the
month of June.

CHRYS1S, golden fly, in natural history,
a genus of insects of the order Hyme-
noptera. Mouth horny, projecting; lip
much longer than the jaw, which is li-
near, membranaceous, and emarginate at
the tip ; no tongue ; feelers four, un-
equal, filiform ; antennae short, filiform,
of twelve articulations, the first longer ;
body gilt polished ; abdomen arched be-
neath, with a scale on each side ; tail
generally toothed ; sting pungent, near-
ly concealed ; wings flat. These are ge-
nerally found in the holes of old walls;
There are more than thirty species.

CHRYSITRIX, in botany, a genus of
the Polygamia Dioecia class and order.
Natural order of Calamarix. Cyperoideae,
Jussieu. Essential character: herma-
phrodite ; glume bivalve ; corolla of nu-
merous setaceous chaffs ; stamina many,
solitary, between the chaffs ; pistil one :
male as in the hermaphrodite ; pistil one.
There is but one species ; viz. C. capen-
sis, a perennial plant ; native of the Cape
of Good Hope.

CHRYSOBALANUS, in botany, a ge-
nus of the Icosandria Monogynia class
and order. Natural order of Pomaceae.
Rosaceae, Jussieu. Essential character:
calyx five-cleft ; petals five ; style late-
ral ; drupe with a five-furrowed, five-
valved nut. There is but one species :
viz. C. icaco, cocoa plumb, a shrub about
eight feet high. Native of the Caribbee
islands, and the neighbouring continent
near the sea.

CHRYSOBERYLL, in mineralogy, a
species of the flint genus. Its chief co-
lour is asparagus green, passing on the
one side into an apple-green, mountain
green, and greenish white : on the other
side it passes through light olive and oil
green into yellowish grey, which inclines
to brown. It occurs but seldom crysta-
lized, and then the crystals are small, ex-
ternally shining, internally splendent, and
intermediate between the resinous and
vitreous. It is brittle, not easily frangi-
ble ; specific gravity from 3.6 to 3.8. Be-
fore the blow-pipe it is infusit'.e without
addition : it is found in Brazil, m the
sands of Ceylon, along with rubies and

CHR

sapphires : it is sometimes cut for ring
stones, and is usually set with yellow foil,
but is seldom to be met with even in the
possession of jewellers : it is called the
Oriental chrysolite, in commerce : con-
stituent parts

Alumina - - -
Silica - - - -
Lime - - - -
Oxide of Iron •
Loss ....

- fl.5

- 18.0

- 6.0

- 1.5

- 3.0

100.

CHRYSOCOMA, in botany, English
goldy locks, a genus of the Syngenesia Po-
lygamia JEqualis class and order. Natural
order of Composite Discoidex. Corymbi-
ferae, Jussieu. Essential character : ca-
lyx hemispherical, imbricate ; style
scarcely longer than the florets •, pappus
simple ; receptacle naked. There are
thirteen species : almost all of them na-
tives of the Cape of Good Hope.

CHRYSOGONUM, in botany, a genus of
the Syngenesia Polygpamia Necessaria
class and order. Natural order of Com-
positse Oppositifolise. Corymbiferae, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : calyx five-
leaved; seeds involved in a four-leaved
calycle ; pappus one-leafed, three-tooth-
ed ; receptacle chaffy. There is but one
species ; viz. C. virginianum, a native of
Virginia.

CHRYSOLITE, in mineralogy, a spe-
cies of the flint genus; the chief colour
of which is pistachio green, of all degrees
of intensity : it occurs sometimes in ori-
ginal, angular, pretty sharp-edged pieces,
which are frequently notched, and exhi-
bit a peculiar, rough, scaly, splintery sur-
face ; also in rolled pieces, and crystal-
lized ; brittle ; eusy frangible ; specific
gravity about 3.4; infusible before the
blow-pipe without addition ; constituent
parts, according to Klaproth,

Silica 38.0

Magnesia .... 39.5
Oxide of iron - - 19.0
Loss 3.5

100.0

It is found principally in Upper Egypt ;
but has been met with in Bohemia, and
in the isle of Bourbon. It is employed as
a precious stone in different kinds of
jewelry, but of no very great value.
'Werner thinks that the stone described
by the ancients under the name of yellow
chrysolite answers to our topaz.

CHRYSOMELA, in natural history, a
genus of insects of the order of Coleoptera.
Antennae moniliform ; six feelers, grow-
ing larger towards the end ; thorax mar-
ginate ; shells irnmurgmate ; body most-
ly oval. Of this genus there are several
hundred species. They are separated
into three distinct divisions. A. lip en-
tire; hind legs equal. B. oblong; lip
bifid ; hind thighs equal. C oblong; lip
bifid; hind thighs thickened. This nu-
merous and very beautiful tribe is found
every where in woods and gardens. Their
motion is slow, and some of them when
caught emit an oily liquor of a disagree-
able smell. The larvae of this genus, and
also of the Cryptocephalus, feed on the
leaves of trees and plants.

CHRYSOPHRAS,in mineral ogy,£ft}pe-
cies of the Flint genus, of an apple-green,
of all degrees of intensity, passing through
the various shades of greenish grey. It
is found massive in angular pieces, and
thick plates. Internally it is dull ; some
rare varieties are glimmering. Specific
gravity 3.25. Before the blow-pipe it
loses its colour and transparency, and is
infusible without some addition. By ana-
lysis it is found to contain

Silica . . .
Lime . . .
Oxide of nickel

96.16
0.83
1.00

97.99

A trace of alumina and oxide of iron. —
It is found with quartz, opal, chalcedony,
&c. in serpentine, in Lower Silesia. It is
chiefly used for I'ing-stones ; but is diffi-
cult to cut and polish. The apple-green
variety is the most highly valued, and
ring-stones of that colour will fetch 10,
or 12L It passes into horn-stone and chal-
cedony, and into a fossil which is inter-
mediate between chrysophras and opal.
It loses much of its colour when kept In
a warm and dry place, or when much ex-
posed to the air. Very elegant speci-
mens of this beautiful fossil are to be seen
in the great cathedral at Prague, where
a closet is inlaid with it.

CHRYSOPHYLLUM, in botany, a ge-
nus of the Pentandria Monogynia class
and order. Natural order of Dumosze.
Sapotae, Jussieu. Essential character :
corolla bell-shaped, ten-cleft ; segments
alternate, spreading ; berry ten-seeded.
There are six species ; natives of the
West Indies.

CHRYSOSPLENIUM, in botany, a ge-
nus of the Decandria Digynia class and

CHU

order. Natural order of Succulent*. Es-
sential character : calyx four or tive-cleit,
coloured ; corolla none ; capsule two-
beaked, one-celled, many-seeded. There
are two species ; viz. C. aiternifolium, al-
ternate leaved golden saxifrage : and C.
oppositifolium, opposite-leaved golden
saxifrage. These plants are found in
moist shady places, by the sides of rivu-
lets, in Lapland, Sweden, Denmark, Ger-
many, Switzerland, and with us, about
Norwich, and Worcestershire. The lat-
ter species is native in the United States.

CHURCH, has different significations,
according to the different subjects to
which it is applied. 1. It is understood
of the collective body of Christians, or all
those over the face of the whole earth,
who profess to believe in Christ, and ac-
knowledge him to be the Saviour of man-
kind. This is what the ancient writers
call the catholic or universal church. 2.
Church is applied to any particular con-
gregations of Christians, who at one time,
and in one place, associate together, and
concur in the participation of all the in-
stitutions of Jesus Christ, with their pro-
per pastors and ministers. Thus we read
of the church of Antioch, the church of
Alexandria, the church of Thessalonica,
and the like. 3. Church denotes a par-
ticular sect of Christians, distinguished
by particular doctrines and ceremonies.
In this sense we speak of the Romish
church, the Greek church, the Reformed
church, the church of England, Sec.

The Latin or Western church compre-
hends all the churches of Italy, France,
Spain, Africa, the North, and all other
countries whither the Romans carried
their language. Great Britain, part of
the Netherlands, of Germany, and of the
North, have been separated from hence
ever since the time of Henry VIII. and
constitute what we call the Reformed
church, and what the Romanists call the
Western Schism. The Greek or Eastern
church comprehends the churches of all
the countries anciently subject to the
Greek or Eastern empire, and through
which their language was carried ; that
is, all the space extended from Greece
to Mesopotamia, and Persia, and thence
into Egypt.

CHUKCH, the place which Christians
consecrate to the worship of God. By
the common law and general custom of
the British realm, it was lawful for earls,
barons, and others of the laity, to build
churches; but they could not erect a
spiritual body politic, to continue in suc-
cession, and capable of endowment, with-
out the king's license ; and before the

law shall take knowledge of them as
such, they nmsi ulso have the bishop's
leave and consent, to be consecrated or
dedicated by h;m.

CHURCHWARDENS, the guardians
or keepers of the church, are persons
annually chosen in Easter week, by the
joint consent of the minister and parish-
ioners, or according to the custom of the
respective places, to look after the
church and church-yard, and things
thereunto belonging. They are en-
trusted with the care and management of
the goods and personal property of the
ch ii-ch, which they are to order for the
best advantage of the parishioners; but
they have no interest in, or power over,
the freehold of the church itself, or of
any land or other real property belonging
to it; these are the property of the par-
son or vicar, who alone is interested
in their loss or preservation. The
churchwardens therefore may purchase
goods and other articles for the use of
the parish ; they may likewise, witk the
assent of the parishoners, sell or other-
wise dispose of the goods of the church;
but without such consent they are not
authorised to alienate any of the proper-
ty under their care.

All peers of the realm, clergymen,
counsellors, attorneys, clerks in court,
physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries,
are exempt from serving the office
of churchwarden, as is every licensed
dissenting teacher, pretending to holy
orders.

CHURN, an implement for agitating
cream, or milk, so as to separate the
butyrous particles from the serous, and
to effect the production of butter. Some
churns are made upright, of a tapering
form, and are worked by means of a pole
and cross, the former passing through a
hole in the lid. These are pail or bell
churns. Many churns are in the form
of a barrel ; in some of these beaters, or
projecting battens, are affixed within four
or five of the staves, which strike the
cream as the barrel is moved round by
means of a winch : in others, the barrels
are at rest, while a cross fly, of four
or more leaves, is turned within it :
in either case the barrel is supported on
a frame. The Indian churn has an alter-
nate motion, being worked by a vertical
pole, which is turned much the same as
a hand-lathe ; having its lower part split,
the pole occasions great agitation in the
cream. A great variety of churns are in
use : but, in general, their formation
evinces more ingenuity than practical
knowledge. Those moved by pedals,

CHY

and of which, as well as of the Indian
churn, an accurate description is given
in the Agricultural Magazine for Octo-
ber, 1807, merit particular attention, for
their great simplicity and many good
qualities.

CHYLE. See CHYME, ASSIMILATION,
&c.

CHYME, in animal economy : in the
process of digestiou, the food is subject-
ed to a temperature usually above 90° of
Fahrenheit ; it is mixed with the gastric
juice, a liquor secreted by the glands of
the stomach, and is made to undergo a
moderate and alternate pressure, by the
contraction of the stomach itself. It is
thus converted into a soft uniform mass
of a greyish colour, in which the prev ious
texture or nature of the aliment can be
no longer distinguished.

The chyme, as this pulpy mass into
which the food in the stomach is resolv-
ed is termed, passes by the pylorus into
the intestinal canal, where it is nuxed
with the pancreatic juice and the bile,
and is still exposed to the same tempera-
ture and alternating pressure. The thin-
ner parts oi it are absorbed by the slen-
der tubes termed the lacteals. The li-
quor thus absorbed is of a white colour :
it passes througn the glands of the me-
sentery, and is at length conveyed by the
thoracic duet into the blood. This part
of the process is termed chylification,
and the white liquor thus formed, chyle.
It is an opaque milky tiuid, mild to the
taste. By standing for some time, one
part of it coagulates; another portion is
coagulated by heat.

The chyle, after mixing with the
lymph conveyed by the absorbent ves-
sels, is received into the blood which has
returned from the extreme vessels, and
before it passes to the heart. All traces
of it are very soon lost in the blood, as it
mixes perfectly with that fluid. It is
probable, however, tbat its nature is not
immediately completely altered. The
blood passing from the heart is convey-
ed to the lungs, where it circulates over
a very extensive surface presented to
the atmospheric air, with the interven-
tion of a very thin membrane, whicli
does not prevent the,r mutual action.
During this circulation, the blood loses a
considerable quantity of carbon, part of
which, it is probable, is derived from the
:mperfectly assimilated chyle, as this,
originating in part from vegetable mat-
ter, must contain carbon in larger pro-
portion than even the blood itself. See
ASSIMILATION,

CIC

CICADA, in natural history, a genus of
insects of the order Hemiptera. Generic
character : snout inflected ; antennae seta-
ceous; the four wings membranaceous
and deflected ; legs in most of the spe-
cies formed for leaping. These insects
live on various plants ; the larva is apte-
rous ; the pupa furnished with the mere
rudiments of wings; both of them six
footed and active, the male of the per-
fect insect chirps like the cricket. There
are some hundred species noticed and
described by different authors, and enu-
merated with their characters by Gmelin.
There are three divisions. A." antennae
subulate, inserted in the front. B. legs not
formed for leaping. C. antennae filiform,
inserted under the eyes ; this class is sub-
divided into, 1. a. lip abbreviated, trun-
cate, emarginate ; and, 2. b. lip rounded,
setaceous at the tip. The most common
of the European species, is C flebeia,
which has been long confounded with
the grasshopper. It is a native of the
warmer parts of Europe, appearing in
the hotter months, and continuing its
chirping during the greater part of the
day, generally sitting among the leaves
of trees. The insects proceed from
eggs deposited by the parent in and
about the roots of trees, near the ground.
They hatch into larva, in which state they
continue nearly two years,cast their skins,
and produce the complete insect. The
male cicada alone makes the chirping, the
female being entirely mute ; the noise of
the former proceeds from a pair of con-
cave membranes, seated on each side the
first joint of the abdomen : the large con-
cavities of the abdomen, immediately
under the two broad lam ell x- in the male
insect, are also faced by a tlun, pellucid,
irridescent membrane, serving to increase
and to reverberate the sound, and a strong
muscular apparatus is exerted, for *he
purpose of moving the necessary ovg«ns.
Among1 the smaller European species is
C. spumaria, or j.uckow-sp-t cicadas so
named from the circumstance of its
larva being found constantly enveloped
in a mass of vvj^te froth, adhering to the
leaves and .it rvn of vegex.tuies. This
frotb, which is popularly known by the
name of cuckow-spittle, is found in the
summer, and is the production of the in-
cluded larva, which, from the time of its
hatching ri-nm the egg deposited by the
pur cut insect, continues, at intervals, to
SUCK the juices of the stem on which it
rt>'des, and to discharge them from the
vent in the form of very minute bubbles ;
and by Continuing the operation, com-

CIC

CIM

pletely covers itself with a large mass
of froth, which is sometimes so • over-
charged with moisture, that a drop may
be seen hanging1 from its under sur-
face.

CICCA, in botany, a genus of the Mo-
noecia Tetrandria class and order. Es-
sential character : male, calyx four-
leaved ; corolla none : female, calyx
three-leaved; corolla none: styles four;
capsule tetracoccous. There is but one
species, viz. C. disticha, a native of the
East Indies.

CICER, in botany, a genus of the
Diadelphia Decandria class and order.
Natural order of Papilionaceae or Le-
guminosre. Essential character: calyx
five parted, length of the corolla; the
four upper segments incumbent on the
banner ; legume rhombed, turgid, two-
seeded. There is but one species, viz.
C. arietinum, chick pea, which is an
annual, and a native of the South of
Europe, the Levant, and Africa, where
it is frequently eaten both raw and
boiled.

CICHORIUM, in botany, English suc-
cory, a genus of the Syngenesia Polyga-
mia JEqualis class and order. Natural or-
der of Composite Simiflosculosze. Cina-
rocephalx, Jussieu. Essential character:
calyx calycled; pappus slightly five-
toothed, obscurely hairy; receptacle
somewhat chaffy. There are three spe-
cies: the first of which, C. intybus, wild
succory, is generally considered as a com-
mon weed; it is, however, cultivated as
food for cattle ; C. endivia, broad-leaved
succory, or common endive, is cultivated
in our English gardens, being one of the
principal ingredients in our autumn and
winter salads. C. spinosum, prickly suc-
cory, grows naturally on the sea coast
in Sicily, and the islands of the Archipe-
lago.

CICTNDELA, in natural history, a ge-
nus of insects of the order Coleoptera ;
antennae setaceous : feelers six, filiform ;
the hind ones hairy : mandible promi-
nent, armed with many teeth: eyes promi-
nent : thorax rounded, margined, nar-
rower than the head. There are about
60 species, in two divisions. A. lip three-
toothed. B. lip rounded, pointed entire.
The cicindela is in general a very beauti-
ful genus of insects : they are found in
dry sandy places, and prey with the most
ravenous ferocity upon all other insects
which come in their way, and which they
can overcome : the larva is soft, white,
long, six-footed, with a brown scaly head,
•tnd lurks in a round perpendicular hole

VOJ,.TTT. '

in the ground, with its head at the en-
trance, to draw in and devour whatever
insects may come near or fall into it.
These insects are remarkable for the
celerity and vigour of their flight : they
are generally seen on the wing in the
hottest part of the day, chiefly frequent-
ing, dry meadows, &c. C. campestris, one
of the most common European species,
is a highly beautiful insect, being of a
bright grass green, with the wing-shells
each marked by five small, round, white
spots ; the head, thorax, and limbs are o£
a rich gilded cast, and the eyes black and
prominent ; the legs are long and slen-
der : it is common in the fields, and is
about half an inch long.

CICUTA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Digynia class and order. Na-
tural order of Umbellate. Essential cha-
racter ; fruit subovate, furrowed. There
are three species, of which C. virosa,
long-leaved water hemlock, generally
grows near the sides of large stagnant
waters, or in shallow slow rivers. To-
wards the end of autumn, the root for
the succeeding summer 'is formed out of
the lower part of the stalk : this is di-
vided transversely into many large une-
qual cells ; so that it becomes specifi-
cally lighter than water, and in winter,
when the rivers or pools swell, is buoyed
up. It is an inhabitant of the northern
parts of Europe, and is one of the rankest
of vegetable poisons.

C1ENFUEGIA, in botany, a genus of
the Monadelphia Dodecandria class and
order. Calyx double, the outer of twelve
setaceous leaves; petals five; style fili-
form ; stigma clavate; capsule three-cell-
ed, three seeds. A single species, found
in Senegal.

CIMEX, in natural history, the bug,* a

fenus of insects of the order Hemipfera.
nout inflected : antennae longer than the
thorax ; wings four, folded crosswise; the
upper ones coriaceous on the upper part;
back flat ; thorax margined; legs formed
for running. Of this genus, more than a
thousand species have been enumerated
and described. The divisions are, 1. A.
antennae inserted before the eyes ; which
is subdivided into, a. without a lip : b. lip
long, subulate, annulate : c. lip short,
rounded ; body long, linear : d. sheath
four-jointed, the first membranaceous :
body long and narrow. B. antennas in-
serted above the eyes. Of this very ex-
tensive genus only the C. lectuarius, or
common bed bug, is apterous, or without
wings. It is said not to have been known
in England before the year 1670, when it
Bb

ivas imported among timber used in re-
building the city of London after the
great fire in 1666. The bug is one of the
best subjects for exhibiting a micro-
scopic view of the circulation of the blood.
See BUG.

CIMICIFUGA, in botany, a genus of
the Polyandria Tetragynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Multisiliquae. *Pa-
paveraceze, Jussieu. Essential character;
calyx four or five-leaved ; nectary four,
urceolate; capsule four to seven. There
is but one species ; viz. C. fcetida, a na-
tive of the distant parts of Siberia, flow-
ering in July, and ripening its seeds in
August. The whole plant has a strong
virose smell, occasioning the head-ach.
To this genus Pursh has referred Actea
Racemosa, or black snake-root; called
also rich- weed, cattle-weed, and squaroot.
It is one of the medicines of the Indians
of our country.

CIMOLITE, in mineralogy, is of a
lu ht greyish white, inclining to pearl-
grey ; but by exposure to the air it ac-
quires a reddish tint. It occurs in mass,
forming large strata; its fracture is earthy,
uneven, and its texture more or less
slaty. It is opake, of a greasy lustre,
and may be scraped with a knife. It ad-
heres firmly to the tongue, stains the
fingers in some degree, and, though soft,
is very tough, and pulverized with diffi-
culty. The specific gravity 2.0. When
exposed to the action of the blow-pipe,
it becomes at first of a dark grey colour;
but afterwards recovers its whiteness
with little or no alteration : with borax it
forms a light brown glass. Its component
parts are,

Silex . . .
Alumina . .
Oxide of iron
Water

63.00

23.00

1.25

12.00

99.25

It abounds in the island of Cimola, and
was in great request by the ancients for
its detergent properties ; at present its
use is almost entirely confined to the in-
habitants of the island. It produces the
same effects as fuller's earth, but in a
higher degree.

CINCHONA, in botany, so named in
honour of the Countess del Cinchon, lady
of a Spanish viceroy, whose cure is said
first to have brought the Peruvian bark
into reputation, a genus of the Pentan-

uria. Monogynia class and order. Natu
ral order of' Contorts:. Rubiacese, Jus
sieu. There are nine species. See BARK

CINCHONIN, in chemistry: it has
been supposed that a principle, analogous
to animal gelatine, exists in some vegeta-
bles, particularly in the Peruvian bark :•
this has been denominated cinchonin. In
this principle it has been supposed that
the febrifuge power of the bark resided,
and some have gone so far as to recom-
mend animal glue as a substitute for
bark.

CINERARIA, in botany, a genus of
the Syngenesia Polygamia Superfluaclass
and order. Natural order of Composite
Discoidese. Corymbiferx, Jussieu. Es-
sential character ; calyx simple, many
leaved, equal ; pappus simple ; recepta-
cle naked. There are forty-one species,
most of them natives of the Cape of Good
Hope.

CINNA, in botany, a genus of the Mo-
nandria Digynia class and order. Natural
order of grasses. Essential character :
calyx glume two-valved, one-flowered ;
corolla glume two-valved ; seed one.
There is but one species, -viz. C. arundi-
nacea, a native of Canada, and many part?
of the United States,

CINNABAR, in mineralogy, a species
of the genus Mercury, of which there
are two sub-species, viz. the dark red,
and the bright red. The- former occurs
massive, disseminated, in blunt cornered
pieces, in membranes, amorphous,dendri-
tic, and fruticose ; it occurs also crystal-
lized. The specific gravity is from 7 to
10, and the constituent parts are

Mercury
Sulphur
Iron

81
15

100

Before the blow-pipe it is completely
volatalized, giving a blue flame, and a
smoke which has the odour of sulphur.
Both species are found in Bohemia, Hun-
gary, Transylvania, and many other parts
of the continent ; but the most important
mercury mines are those of Almadin in
Spain, which have been worked upwards
of two thousand years. It is from this ore
that the greatest quantity of the mercury
of commerce is obtained. It is used also
as a pigment, but not by any means equal
to the artificial cinnabar. See the next
article.

CIN

CIR

CIKXABAR, in chemistry, is a sulphu-
ret of mercury, and is prepared by mixing-
one part of sulphur with seven or eight of
mercury, and by applying1 such a heat as
to make them combine. The bJack pow-
der which they form is then exposed to
heat sufficient to produce inflammation ;
after which the remaining mass is sub-
limed in close vessels. The sublimate is
inercury|in combination with sulphur: it is
of a very fine red colour, and when levi-
gated, is in common use as a pigment, un-
der the name of cinnabar or vermilion.

CINNAMON is the bark of the laurus
cinnamomum, indigenous in some of the
Eastern Islands, butan inferior kind,taken
from the laurus cassia, is often sold for or
mixed with it. Cinnamon is most grate-
ful, aromatic, highly pungent, and yields
a very fine cordial. The bark is used in
many culinary preparations, and is gene-
rally taken from the tree by making an
incision on the under side for the whole
length of the branch, which causes the
bark to curl, and to separate itself, almost
voluntarily, when acted upon by the sun's
heat. That from the smaller twigs is ac-
counted the best: it should be thin, very
brittle, and very hot to the tongue. What
we use is the inner bark ; the exterior rind
being of no value.

CIXNAMOST stone, in mineralogy, a spe-
cies of the genus Zircon, found atColum-
bo, in the islandofCeylon.lt is known in
Holland under the name of kanelstein,
which signifies cinnamon stone, probably
from its resemblance in colour to that spice.

CINNAMON tree. See LAURUS CixtfA-
:>IOMUM.

CINQUE PORTS, five havens that lie
on the east part " of England, towards
France, thus called by way of eminence,
on account of their superior importance,
as having been thought by qur kings to
merit a particular regard for their pre-
servation against invasions. Hence they
have a particular policy, and are governed
by a keeper, with a title of the lord war-
den of the Cinque Ports, which office be-
longs to the constable of Dover; and their
representatives are called Barons of the
Cinque Ports.

They have various franchises, similar,
in many respects, to those of the counties
palatine, and particularly an exclusive ju-
risdiction before the mayor and jurats of
the port, their warden having the au-
thority of an admiral among them, and
sending out writs in his own name ; and
the king's writs do not run there. How-
ever, on a judgment in any of the king's
courts, if the defendant hath no goods,

&c. except in the ports, the plaintiflTmay
get the records certified into chanceryv
and from thence sent by mittimus to the
lord warden to make execution.

The Cinque Ports, it has been observ-
ed, are not «« jura aequalia," like counties
palatine, but are parcel of the county of
Kent, so that if a writ be brought against
one for land within the Cinque Ports, and
he appears and pleads to it, and judgment
is given against him in the Common Pleas,
this judgment shall bind him, for the land
is not exempted out of the county, and
the tenant may wave the benefit of his
privilege. These five ports are, Dover,
Hastings, Romney, Hythe, and Sandwich;
to which Winchelsea and Rye have been
since added.

CIPHER. See CYPHER.

CIRCJEA, in botany, a genus of the
Diandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Aggregate. Onagrae,
Jussieu. Essential character : corolla two-
petalled ; calyx two-leaved, superior ;
seed one, two-celled. There are two
species; viz. C. lutetiana, common enchan-
ter's nightshade, and C. alpina, mountain
enchanter's nightshade. Both are natives
of the United States.

CIRCLE, the name of various astrono-
nomical instruments for observing right
ascensions, declinations, azimuths, alti-
tudes, and likewise for .the purposes of
the most improved theodolite.

Plate " Circular Instrument*' is a re-
presentation of an instrument made by
Mr. Troughton, and of which he liberally
permitted our draughtsman to take a
drawing. It is an instrument which mea-
sures both horizontal and vertical angles
with great accuracy, and is equally adapt-
ed for astronomical purposes and survey-
ing.

The instrument is supported on three
screws, two of which, x, y, a»-e shewn in
the figure; the three arms through which
these pass meet in the centre, and hold a
strong, vertical steel axis, truly turned,
and very exactly fitted into two sockets,
one at the top and the other at the bot-
tom of a cone, A : upon this axis the up-
per part of the instrument turns. B is
the azimuth circle, laying upon the three
arms of the tripod, and capable of turn-
ing round on the sieel axis before men-
tioned : it is held by a screw, ,§-, which
moves the circles slowly round when turn-
ed: this motion is to adjust the circle, so
that the plane of the vertical circle, P,
shall be in the meridian when the index
is set to zero. The circle is divided into
degrees and every five minutes, and the

CIRCLE.

microscope subdivides them into seconds.
Another similar microscope is fixed di-
ametrically opposite, upon the circular
plate H, and turns round upon the verti-
cal axis with the rest of the instrument.
(For the constructions of these micro-
scopes, see that article.) I, I, are two
hollow conical pillars, screwed on the in-
dex plate to support the axis of the ver-
tical circle, P, by means of two bars (one
only of which can be seen, A,) screwed at
the top of the pillars, and holding1 at their
outer ends tubes, which contain angular
bearings for the pivots of the axis: these
bearings, or Y's, as they are called, from
resembling that letter, can be elevated
or depressed by screws e> beneath them,
to bring the axis parallel to the plane of
the azimuth circle, m, m, are two crook-
ed hollow tubes, screwed to the upright
pillars, holding two microscopes, n, n,
reading divisions diametrically opposite
to each other on the vertical circle P.
The vertical circle is composed of two
circles, each cut from a solid plate, and
attached to two flanches on a hollow
conical axis E; they are firmly braced
together by short pillars, as in the figure;
between the circles the telescope F is
fixed, it is 30 inches long and 2 in dia-
meter. O is a thin plate of metal, screwed
to the further main pillar, I, by its lower
end, and its upper end supporting a clamp
for fixing the circle, when set at any
elevation, and a screw for moving it slow-
ly a small quantity after clamping. A simi-
lar screw, for occasionally attaching the
index plate, If, to the azimuth circle, B,
is seen at p. a is a small roller pushed up-
wards by a spring, I: it acts against a
ring upon the conical axis E, and its use
is to support part of the weight of the
circle and telescope, and take the bearing
from the pivots at the end of the axis. R
is a spirit level hung to the two horns w,
»n, and adjustable by a screw at its end.
S is a telescope beneath the instrument,
which is set to any distant object when
the instrument is in use, and serves to
shew thkt the instrument does not change
its position. See OBSERVATORY and SUR-
VEYING.

( CIRCLE, in geometry, a plane figure
comprehended by a single curve line, call-
ed its circumference, to which right lines
or radii, drawn from a point in the mid-
dle, called the centre, are equal to each
other.

The area of a circle is found by multi-
plying the circumference by the fourth
part of the diameter, or half the circum-
ference by half the diameter : for every

circle may be conceived to be a polygon
of an infinite number of sides, and the
semidiameter must be equal to the per-
pendicular of such a polygon, and the cir-
cumference of the circle equal to the pe-
riphery of the polygon : therefore half the
circumference multiplied by half the dia-
meter gives the area of the circle.

Circles, and similar figures inscribed in
them, are always as the squares of the
diameters ; so that they are in a duplicate
ratio of their diameters, and consequently
of their radii.

A circle is equal to a triangle, the base
of which is equal to the periphery, and
its altitude to its radius : circles therefore
are in a ratio compounded of the periphe-
ries and the radii.

To find the proportion of the diameter
of a circle to its circumference. Find, by
continual bisection, the sides of the in-
scribed polygon, till you arrive at a side
subtending any arch, however small ; this
found, find likewise the side of a similar
circumscribed polygon ; multiply each by
the number of the sides of the polygon,
by which you will have the perimeter of
each polygon. The ratio of the diameter
to the periphery of the circle will be
greater than that of the same diame-
ter to the perimeter of the circumscribed
polygon, but less than that of the in-
scribed polygon. The difference of the
two being known, the ratio of the diame-
ter to the periphery is easily had in num-
bers, very nearly, though not justly true.
Thus Archimedes fixed the proportion at
7 to 22.

Wolfius finds it as 10000000000000000
to 31415926535897932 : and the learned
Mr. Machin has carried it to one hundred
places, as follows : if the diameter of a
circle be 1, the circumference will be
3,14159, 2£535, 89793, 25846, 26433,
83279, 50288, 41971, 69399, 37510,
5^209, 74944,59230, 78164, 05286, 20899,
86280, 34825, 34211, 70679 of the same
parts. But the ratios generally used in
practice are that of Archimedes, and the
following; as 106 to 333, as 113 to 355,
as 1702 to 5347, as 1815 to 5702, or as 1
to 3.14159.

CIRCLE, the quadrature of the, or the
manner of making a square, whose sur-
face is perfectly and geometrically equal
to that of a circle, is a problem that has
employed the geometricians of all ages.

Many maintain it to be impossible ;
Des Cartes, in particular, insists on it,
that a right line and a circle being of dif-
ferent natures, there can be no strict
proportion between them: and in effect

CIR

€IR

Vve are at a loss for the just proportion
betvreen the diameter and circumference
of a circle.

Archimedes is the person who has come
nearest the truth ; all the rest have made
paralogisms. Charles V> offered a re-
ward of 100,000 crowns to the person
who should solve this celebrated pro-
blem ; and the States of Holland have
proposed a reward for the same pur-
pose.

CIRCLE, great, of the sphere, that which,
having its centre in the centre of the
sphere, divides it into two equal hemi-
spheres ; such are the equator, ecliptic,
horizon, the colures, and the azimuths,
&c See EQ.UATOR, ECLIPTIC, &c.

CIRCLE, lesser, of the sphere, that which,
having its centre in the axis of the sphere,
divides it into two unequal parts : these
are usually denominated from the great
circles to which they are parallel, as pa-
rallels of the equator.

CIRCLE of curvature, a circle, the curva-
ture of which is equal to that of a certain
curve at a given point.

CIRCLE, horary, on the globe, a brazen
circle fixed on every globe, with an index,
to shew how many hours, and consequent-
ly how many degrees, any place is east or
west of another.

CIRCLE of perpetual apparition, one of
the lesser circles, parallel to the equa-
tor, described by any point touching the
northern point of the horizon, and car-
ried about with the diurnal motion : all
the stars included within this circle are
always visible above the horizon.

CIRCLE of perpetual occultation, another
circle at a like distance from the equa-
tor, on the south, containing all those
starsr which never appear in our hemi-
sphere.

CIRCLES, diurnal, are immoveable cir-
cles, supposed to be described by the se-
veral stars and other points of the hea-
vens, in their diurnal rotation round the
earth ; or, rather, in the rotation of the
earth round its axis.

CIRCLES of latitude, or secondaries of the
ecliptic, are great circles perpendicular to
the plane of the ecliptic, passing through
the poles of it, and through every star
and planet. They serve to measure the
latitude of the stars, which is an arch of
one of those circles intercepted between
the star and the ecliptic.

CIRCLES of longitude, are several lesser
circles parallel to the ecliptic, still dimi-
nishing in proportion as they recede
from it ; on these the longitude of the
-.tars is reckoned,

CIRCLES of declination, on the globe,
are, with some writers, the meridians on
which the declination or distance of any
star from the equinoctial is measured.

CIRCLES, horary, in dialling, are the
lines which shew the hours on dials,
though these be not drawn circular, but
nearly straight.

CIRCLES, polar, are parallel to the equa-
tor, and at the same distance from the
poles that the tropics are from the equa-
tor. See ARCTIC.

CIRCLES of position, are circles passing
through the common intersections of the
horizon and meridian, and through any
degree of the ecliptic, or the centre of
any star, or other point in the heavens ;
and are used for finding out the situation
or position of any star.

CIRCLES, Dmidical, a name given to
certain ancient inclosures, formed by
rude stones circularly arranged. These,
it is supposed, were temples, or places
for solemn assemblies for councils, or
seats of judgment. These tern pies, though
generally circular, occasionally differ in
magnitude. The most simple were com-
posed of one circle. Stonehenge consist-
ed of two circles and two ovals, respec-
tively concentric. One near St. Just, in
Cornwall, is formed of four intersecting
circles. In magnitude these differ very
much : some are formed of only 12 stones,
while others, as Stonehenge and Abury,
contained, the first 140, and the second
652, and occupied many acres of ground.
•These different numbers, measures, and
arrangements, are supposed to have had
reference, either to the astronomical di-
visions of the year, or some mysteries of
the Druidical religion.

CIRCUIT, in electricity, denotes the
course of the electrical fluid from the
charged surface of an electric body to the
opposite surface on which the discharge
is made.

CIRCUIT, in law, signifies a longer
course of proceedings than is needful to
recover the thing sued for : in case a per-
son grants a rent charge of 101. a year
out of his manor, and afterwards the
grantee disseises the grantor, who there-
upon brings an assise, and recovers the
land, and 20J. damages; which being
paid, the grantee brings his action for
IOL of the rent, due during the time of
the disseisin : this is termed circuity of
action, because, as the grantor was to
receive 201. damages, and pay 10/. rent,
he might only have received the Wl.
for the damages, and the grantee
might have retained the other 10A for

his rent, and by that means saved his
action.

CIRCUIT also signifies the journey, or
progress, which the judges take twice
every year, through the several counties
of England and Wales, to hold courts
and administer justice, where recourse
cannot be had to the King's courts at
Westminster ; hence England is divided
into six circuits, viz. The home circuit,
Norfolk circuit, Midland circuit, Oxford
circuit, Western circuit, and Northern
circuit. In Wales there are but two cir-
cuits, North and South Wales. Two
judges are assigned by the King's com-
mission to every circuit. In Scotland
there are three circuits, viz. the Southern,
Western, and Northern, which are like-
wise made twice every year, viz. in
spring and autumn.

CIRCULAR lines, in mathematics, such
straight lines as are divided from the
divisions made in the arch of the
limb, such as sines, tangents, secants,
chords, &c.

CIRCULAR numbers, called also spheri-
cal ones, according to some, are such
whose powers terminate in the roots
themselves. Thus, for instance, 5 and 6,
all whose powers do end in 5 and 6, as
the square of 5 is 25, the square of 6 is
36, &c.

CIRCULATION of the blood, the natu-
ral motion of the blood in a living ani-
mal, whereby that fluid is alternately car-
ried from the heart to all parts of the
body by the arteries, and returned from
the same parts to the heart, by the veins.
See PHYSIOLOGY.

CIRCUMFERENCE, in a general
sense, denotes the line or lines bounding
A plane figure. However, it is general-
ly used^in a more limited sense, for the
curve line which bounds a circle, and
otherwise called a periphery ; the boun-
dary of a right lined figure being ex-
pressed by the term perimeter.

The circumference of every circle is
supposed to be divided into 360 degrees.
The angle at the circumference of a cir-
cle is double that at the centre. For the
ratio of the circumference of a circle to
jts radius, see CIRCLE.

CIRCUMFERENTOR, a mathemati-
cal instrument, used by land-surveyors
for taking angles by the magnetic nee-
dle. It is an instrument (where great
accuracy is not desired) much used in
surveying, in and about woodlands, com-
mons, harbours, seacoasts, in the work-
ing of coal-mines, &c. &c. where a per-
manent direction of the needle is of the

must material consequence in surveying'
The instrument is made of brass, and, in
its most simple state, consists of the fol-
lowing parts ; a brass compass box, about
five inches diameter, or more ; on the
plate of the box are engraved and letter-
ed the principal points of the compass,
divided into four quarters of 90 degrees
each, two of the quarters being ligured
from the south point, and terminated by
90 degrees at the east and west ; and the
other two quarters from the north point,
terminating also at the east and west : on
the circumference of the plate is fixed a
ring, divided into 360 degrees, number-
ed from 0 to 360; the observer may
therefore take his angles as bearing-
from the north and south towards the
east and west ; or, by that which is the
most usual method, the whole circum-
ference of a circle of 360 degrees, com-
mencing from the north point : a magnet-
ic needle of the usual kind turns upon
an iron point, fix«d in the centre of the
compass plate ; a stop and trigger wire
is applied to the compass box, to throw
the needle off its centre when not in
use, in order to preserve the fineness of
the centre point : a glass and brass spring
ring covers the needle and closes the
box ; to the under side of the compass
box, at the N. and S. points, is connected
a bar about 15 inches long, from end to
end, to each end of which is fixed a per-
pendicular brass sight about five inches
long; each sight containing1 a long slit
or perforation, and a sight line, so that
the observer may take his line of sight,
or observation of the line upon the sta-
tion mark, at which end of the bar he
pleases.

CIRCUMSCRIBED, in geometry, is
said of a figure which is drawn round ano-
ther figure, so that all its sides or planes
touch the inscribed figure.

CIRCUMSCRIBED hyperbola, one of Sir
Isaac Newton's hyperbolas of the second
order, that cuts its asymptotes, and con-
tains the parts cut off within its own
space.

CIRCUMSCRIBING, in geometry, de-
notes the describing a polygonous figure
about a circle, in such a manner that
all its sides shall be tangents to the
circumference. Sometimes the term Is
used for the describing a circle about a
polygon, so that each side is a chord ; but
in this case it is more usual to say the
polygon is inscribed, than the ciycle is
circumscribed.

C1RCUMVALLATION, or fc of dr.
cumvallation, in the art of war, is a trench

CIS

C1T

Bordered with a parapet, thrown up
quite round the beseiger's camp, by way
of security against any army that may
attempt to relieve the place, as well as
to prevent desertion. See FORTIFICA-
TION.

CIRRUS, in botany, a clasper or ten-
dril- that fine spiral string or fibre, put
out from the foot-stalks, by which some
plants, as the ivy and vine, fasten them-
selves to walls, pales, or trees, for sup-
port. It is ranked by Linnxus among the
fulcra, or parts of plants that serve for
support, protection and defence. Tendrils
are sometimes placed opposite to the
leaves, as in the vine ; sometimes at the
side of the foot-stalk of the leaf, as in the
passion-flower ; and sometimes, as in the
winged-pea, they are emitted from the
leaves themselves.

CIRSOCELE, or hernia varicos a, in sur-
gery, a preternatural distension or diva-
rication of the spermatic veins in the pro-
cess of the peritonaeum.

CISSAMPELOS, in botany, a genus of
the Dioecia Monadelphia class and order.
Natural order of Sarmentacex. Menis-
pernia, Jussieu. Essential character :
male, calyx four-leaved ; corolla none ;
nectary wheel-shaped ; stamina four, with
cornate filaments. Female, calyx one-
leafed, ligulate, roundish ; corolla none ;
styles three ; berry one-seeded. There
are three species.

CISSOID, in geometry, a curve of
the second order, first invented by
Diocles, whence it is called the cissoid of
Diocles.

Sir Isaac Newton, in his appendix
"De -Equationum Construetionelineari,"
gives the following elegant description of
this curve, and at the same time shews
how, by means of it, to find two mean
proportionals, and the roots of a cubic
equation, without any previous reduc-
tion. Let AG (Plate III. Miscel. fig.
12) be the diameter, and F the centre of
the circle belonging to the cissoid ; and
from F draw F D, F P, at right angles to
each other, and let F P be = A G ; then
if the square P E D be so moved that one
side E P always passes through the point
P, and the end D of the other side E D
slides along the right line F D, the middle
point C of the side E D will describe
one leg G C of the cissoid ; and by con-
tinuing out FD on the other side F,
and turning the square about by a
like operation, the other leg may be de-
scribed.

This curve may likewise be generated
by points in the following manner :

Draw the indefinite right line B C
(fig. 13.) at right angles to A B the
diameter of the semicircle A O B, and
draw the right lines AH, AF, A C, &c
then if you take A M = L H, A O =
OF, Z C = A N, &c. the points M, O,
Z, &c. will form the curve A M O Z of
the cissoid.

CISSOID, properties of the .- it follows
from genesis, that drawing the right
lines PM, KL, perpendicular to AB,
the lines A K, P N, A P, P M, as also
A P, P N, A K, K L, are continual propor-
tions, and therefore that A K = P B,
and P N = I K. ' After the same manner
it appears that the cissoid AM O bisects
the semicircle A O B. Sir Isaac New-
ton, in his last letter to Mr. Leibnitz,
has shewn how to find a right line equal
to one of the legs of this curve by means
of the hyperbola ; but suppressed the in-
vestigation, which, however, may be
seen in his fluxions. The cissoidal space
contained under the diameter A B, the
asymptote B C, and the curve A O Z of
the cissoid, is triple that of the generat-
ing circle A O B.

CISSUS, in botany, a genus of the Te-
trandria Monogynia class and order. Na-
tural order of Hederacese. Vites, Jus- .
sieu. Essential character: berry one-
seeded, surrounded by the calyx, and
four-parted corolla. There are fifteen
species ; natives of both Indies.

CISTUS, in botany, rock rose, or gum
cistus, a genus of the Polyandria Mono-
gynia class and order. Natural order of
Rotaceae. Cisti, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter : corolla five-petalled ; calyx five-
leaved, with two of the leaflets smaller;
capsule. There are sixty-six species, all
of which are great ornaments to a gar-
den ; their flowers, though of short du-
ration, are succeeded by fresh ones al-
most every day for about two months
successively ; the flowers are the size of
a middling rose, but single, and of various
colours ; the plants continue their leaves
all the year; they are most of them hardy
enouch to live in the open air all the win-
ter, except in very severe ones, which
often destroy many of them ; so that a
plant or two of each sort should be
kept in pots, and sheltered, to preserve
the kinds. They are natives of warm cli-
mates.

CITADEL, a place fortified with four,
five, or six bastions, built on a convenient
ground near a city, that it may command
it in case of a rebellion. The city there-
fore is not fortified on the part opposite
to the citadel, though the citadel is

err

against the city. The best form for a ci-
tadel is a pentagon, a square being too
weak, and a hexagon too big.

CITATION, in ecclesiastical courts, is
the same with summons in civil courts.
A person is not to be cited out of the dio-
cese where he lives, unless it be by the
archbishop, in default of the ordinary, or
where the ordinary is party to the suit,
and in case of appeal.

CITHAREXYLUM, in botany, English
fiddle-wood, a genus of theDidynamia An-
giospermia class and order. Natural or-
der of Personatae. Vitices, Jussieu. Es-
sential character: calyx ftve-toothed, bell-
form ; corolla funnel-wheel-form ; seg-
ments above, equal; berry two-seeded;
seeds two-celled. There are five species;
all natives of the West Indies.

CITIES, rise of. After the fall of the
Roman Empire, the proprietors of land
lived principally on their own estates; the
towns were inhabited by mechanics and
tradesmen, chiefly in the condition of
slaves. The people, to whom it was
granted as a privilege that they might
give away their own daughters in mar-
riage without the consent of their lord,
and that upon their death their own chil-
dren and not their lord should succeed to
their goods, must have previously been
in entirely or nearly the same state of
villanage as the occupiers of land in the
country. They seem to have been much
on a level with the hawkers and pedlars
of modern times.

They were generally obliged to pay
some tax or toll for the privilege of sell-
ing their goods at particular places. As
this source of revenue was thought of
some importance by the feudal sove-
reigns and lords, in order to ensure its re-
gular payment, they wereinducedin many
instances to farm it out for a certain sum
to the inhabitants of different towns, who,
in order enforce its payment by the
traders, were invested with the pow-
ers and privileges still possessed by the
corporations of cities and boroughs. A
town thus became a privileged place, of
which traders were not only the inhabi-
tants, but the governors, at least in all that
related to internal management.

The turbulent feudal lords were often
incited by the riches of the burghs to at-
tempt to plunder their houses and ware-
houses ; hence the owners naturally fear-
ed and hated the lords; the sovereigns
of the different states of Europe, for
other reasons, likewise hated and feared
the lords ; this served as a bond of union
between the sovereigns andthe corporate

towns, and enabled the towns to gain
great privileges from those sovereigns
who most needed their assistance, as
King John in England ; and in some in-
stances to become independent, as was
the case with the little republics of Italy,
and the imperial cities in Germany.

CITRATES, in chemistry, salts formed
by the combination of the citric acid, and
alkalies and earths ; thus we have the ci-
trate of potash, the citrate of soda, &c.
See CITRIC ACID.

CITRIC acid, in chemistry, is found in
the juice of lemons and limes, and is
that which gives it the sour taste. It is
mixed, however, with mucilaginous and
extractive matter. Scheele found that it
could not be obtained pure and crystal-
lized by mere evaporation of the lemon
juice, and that even the addition of alco-
hol did not separate completely the fo-
reign matter. The process he followed
is, to saturate the expressed juice of the
lemon, by the addition of chalk. The
citric acid., combining with the lime, forms
an insoluble compound, which of course
precipitates. This is well washed with
warm water, until the water pass off co-
lourless ; and in this way the mucilage
and extractive matter are abstracted. The
citrate of lime is then subjected to the
action of as much sulphuric acid, previ-
ously diluted, as is sufficient to saturate
the litne of the quantity of chalk that has
been employed. The citric acid is disen-
gaged and dissolved by the water; the
mixture is boiled for a few minutes, to
facilitate the precipitation of the sulphate
of lime, and is then filtered. The filtered
liquor is evaporated to the consistence of
syrup, and sulphate of lime separated
daring the evaporation being withdrawn;
and, on cooling and standing for some
time, the citric acid is obtained in needle-
like crystals.

Citric acid exists in a number of other
fruits, from which it may be extracted,
and much, it is said, of what is at present
found in the shops is prepared from the
juice of the lime. From Vauquelin's an-
alysis of the pulp of the tamarind, it ap-
pears to be the chief acid constituent of
that fruit; one pound of the common pre-
pared pulp of the shops containing an
ounce and a half, with smaller quantities
of malic and tartaric acids. This acid is
very soluble in water. At a moderate
temperature, 100 parts of water dissolve
75 parts, cold being produced during the
solution ; at 212° it dissolves twice its
weight of it. Like the other vegetable
acids, its solution undergoes spontaneous

CIV

decomposition, though not very readily.
The more powerful acids decompose it,
though with some difficulty. Concen-
trat ",d sulphuric acid converts it into ace-
tic acid. Scheele remarked, that nitric
acid did not convert it, as it did some of
the other vegetable acids, into oxalic
acid ; but Fourcroy and Vauquelin have
found that, when acted on by a large
quantity of nitric acid for a long time, it
affords a small portion of oxalic, with a
larger portion of acetic acid.

Citric acid combines with the alkalies
and earths, forming salts denominated
citrates. The citrate of potass is very
soluble, and does not crystallize but with
difficulty, and is deliquescent : its taste is
purely saline, and rather mild. It con-
tains "55.55 of acid, and 44.55 of alkali.
Citrate of soda is likewise very soluble,
requiring little more than its weight of
water for its solution : it crystallizes in
six-sided prisms, and the crystals are
slightly efflorescent. Their taste is faintly
saline ; the proportions of the solid salt
are 607 of acid, and 39.3 of soda. Ci-
trate of ammonia is equally or even more
soluble than the others, and does not cry s-
tallize but when its solution is much con-
centrated : the form of its crystals is an
elongated prism. It consists of 62 of acid,
and 38 of ammonia. The earthy citrates
are in general less soluble. When the so-
lution of barytes is poured into the acid, a
precipitate, soluble in the liquid by agita-
tion, is formed : when the whole is satu-
rated, the salt is deposited at first in the
form of a powder, which is covered after-
wards with a kind of crystalline efflores-
cence, and which a large quantity of water
dissolves. It consists of 50 of acid, and
50 of base. When the citric acid is
saturated by lime, small crystals are
deposited, which are very sparingly so-
luble : 100 parts contain 62.66 of acid,
and 37.34 of lime. When saturated by
magnesia, the concentrated solution does
not easily crystallize regularly, but rather
assumes the state of a white, opaque, and
somewhat spongy salt. The proportions
of the salt, are 66.66 of acid, and 33.34
of base.

Vauquelin has likewise examined the
action of citric acid on the metals. It
does not dissolve silver ; but it com-
bines with its oxide, and forms a salt,
insoluble, of a harsh and strong metallic
taste, and which, like the other salts
of silver, is blackened by light : it is
also decomposed by heat, sometimes leav-
ing metallic silver intermixed with char-
VOL. III.

coal. It consists of 36 of acid, and 64 of
oxide .

Citric acid, in its crystallized state, can.
be preserved for any length of time with*
out decomposition ; and a grateful lemon-
ade may be prepared from it, by dissolving
30 or 40 grains in a pint of water, with the
addition of a little sugar ; and to communi-
cate flavour,a little lemon peel,or powder,
formed by rubbing sugar on the fresh le-
mon. The lemon juice may be regarded
as a specific in scurvy, and there is every
probability that the crystallized citric
acid may be equally effectual.

CITRUS, in botany, a genus of thePo-
lyadelphia Icosandria class and order.
Natural order of Bicornes. Aurantia, Jus-
si eu. Essential character : calyx five-
clefr ; petals five, oblong; anthers twenty ;
filaments united into various bodies ; berry
nine-celled. There are five species; of
which we shall notice the C. aurantium,
orange-tree ; of this there are sixty varie-
ties. 1. Seville orange, which is a hand-
some tree, and the hardiest of any, as it
shoots freely in this country, and yields
fruit of excellent quality for domestic
uses. 2. The China orange, which does
not come to perfection here, but in warm
countries it grows in the open ground.
5. The forbidden-fruit tree, which resem-
bles the common orange, but the fruit
when ripe is larger and longer than the
biggest orange : besides these, there are
the horned orange ; the hermaphrodite
orange ; and the dwarf. C. Medica, the
citron tree ; of this species the lemon
tree is accounted a variety ; of which
there are many sorts. The flowers of
all the species appear in May and June,
and the fruit continues setting in June
and July, and ripens the year following.

CIVET, a kind of perfume, bearing the
name of the animal whence it is taken.
The animal commonly known by the
name of the civet, or civet-cat, is the vi-
verra civetta of Linnaeus.

The civet is an animal of a wild dispo-
sition, and lives in the usual manner of
others of this genus, preying on birds,
the smaller quadrupeds, &c. It is a na*
tive of several parts of Africa and India :
but not of America, as some have erro-
neously asserted ; though it has been
transported from the Phillippine Islands,
and the coast of Guinea. This animal, as
well as the zibet, though ^originally na-
tives of the warm climates of Africa and
Asia, are capable of subsisting in tempe-
rate and even in cold countries, provided
they are defended from the injuries *f

C c

CIV

CLA

the weather, and fed with succulent
nourishment. Numbers of them are kept
in Holland, for the sake of procuring and
selling the perfume which they 3rield,
called civet, and sometimes erroneously
confounded with musk. There is a con-
siderable traffic of civet from Bassora,
Calicut, and other places, where the ani-
mal that produces it is bred ; though
great part of the civet among us is fur-
nished by the Dutch, who rear a consi-
derable number of the animals. That
which is obtained from Amsterdam is
preferred to that which comes from the
Levant, or India, because the latter is ge-
nerally less pure. That brought from
Guinea would be the best, if the negroes,
as well as the Indians and Levanters, did
not adulterate it with the juices of plants,
or with labdanum, storax, and other bal-
samic and odoriferous drugs. The quan-
tity supplied depends much on the quali-
ty of the nourishment, and the appetite
of the animal, which always produces
more in proportion to the goodness of its
food. See VIVERRA.

CIVIL death, any thing that retrenches
or cuts off a man from civil society, as a
condemnation to the hulks, perpetual
banishment, condemnation to death, out-
lawry, and excommunication.

CIVIL law, is that law which every par-
ticular nation, commonwealth, or city,
has established peculiarly for itself. The
civil law is either written or unwritten ;
and the written law is public or private ;
public, which immediately regards the
state of the commonwealth, as the enact-
ing and execution of laws, consultations
about war and peace, establishment of
things relating to religion, &c. ; private,
that more immediately has respect to the
concerns of every particular person. The
unwritten law, is custom introduced by
the tacit consent of the people only,
without any particular establishment.
The authority of it is great, and it is
equal with a written law, if it be whol-
ly uninterrupted, and of a long continu-
ance.

The civil law is allowed in Great Bri-
tain in the two universities, for the train-
ing up of students, &c. in matters of fo-
reign treaties between princes ; marine
affairs, civil and criminal ; in the order-
ing of martial causes ; the judgment of
ensigns and arms, rights of honour, &c.

CIVIL list, the money allotted for the
support of the King's household, and
for defraying certain charges of govern-
ment.

CIVIL year, is the legal year, or annual
account of time, which every governmQut

appoints to be used within its own domi-
nions, and is so called in contradistinction
to the natural year, which is measured
exactly by the revolution of the heaven-
ly bodies.

CIVILIAN, in general, denotes some-
thing belonging to the civil law ; but
more especially the doctors and pro-
fessors thereof are called civilians ; of
these we have a college or society in
London, known by the name of Doctors-
commons.

CLAIM, a challenge of interest in any
thing that is in the possession of another,
or at least out of a man's own ; as claim
by charter, by descent, &c.

CLAIRAULT (ALEXIS CLAUDE), a ce-
lebrated French mathematician and aca-
demician, was born at Paris the 13th of
May, 1713. His father, a teacher of ma-
thematics at Paris, was his sole instructor,
teaching him even the letters of the al-
phabet on the figures of Euclid's Ele-
ments, by which he was able to read and
write at four years of age. By a similar
stratagem it was that calculations were
rendered familiar to him. At nine years
of age he »put into his hands Guisnee's
Application of Algebra to Geometry ; at
ten he studied 1'HospitaPs Conic Sec-
tions ; and between twelve and thirteen
he read a memoir to the Academy of Sci-
iences, concerning four new geometrical
curves of his own invention. About the
same time he laid the first foundation of
his work upon curves that have a double
curvature, which he finished in 1729, at
sixteen years of age. He was named Ad-
joint-Mechanician to the Academy in
1731, at the age of eighteen, Associate
in 1733, and Pensioner in 1738. During
his connexion with the Academy, he had
a great multitude of learned and ingeni-
ous communications inserted in their me-
moirs, besides several other works which
he published separately. In the year
1750, the Academy of Petersburg pro-
posed a prize on the subject of the lunar
motions, which Clairault obtained : and in
a few years he obtained another prize on
the same subject. He was during life a
most active and indefatigable man. He
died in 1765, at the age of 52. His works
are numerous, and his papers, inserted
in the Memoirs of the Academy, may be
found in the year 1727, and also for al-
most every year till 1762 ; being upon a
variety of subjects, astronomical, mathe-
matical, optical, &c.

CLAMP in a ship, denotes a piece of
timber applied to a mast or yard, *o pre-
vent the wood from bursting'; and also a
thick plank lying fore and aft under the

CLA

beams of the first orlop, or second deck,
and is the same that the rising timbers
are to the deck.

CLAMP is likewise the term for a pile of
unburnt bricks built up for burning.
These clamps are built much after the
same manner as arches are built in kilns,
viz. with a vacuity betwixt each brick's
breadth for the fire to ascend by ; but
with this difference, that instead of arch-
ing, they truss over, or over-span ; that
is, the end of one brick is laid about half
way over the end of another, and so till
both sides meet within half a brick's
length, and then a binding brick at the
top finishes the arch.

CLAMP nails, such nails as are used to
fasten on clamps in the building or re-
pairing of ships.

CLAN, a term used in Scotland to de-
note a number of famine's of the same
name, under a feudal chief, who protect-
ed them, and, in return for that protec-
tion, commanded their services as his fol-
lowers, and led them to war, and on mili-
tary excursions.

CLAP net, a device for catching larks.
You entice the birds with calls, and when
they are within your distance, you pull a
cord, and your net flies up and claps over
them.

CLARIFICATION, is the separation,
by chemical means, of any liquid from
substances suspended in it,and rendering
it turbid. If a difference can be made be-
tween clarification and filtration, it is,
that the latter is effcted by mere me-
chanical means, but the former either by
heat or by certain additions, the action of
which may be considered as chiefly che-
mical. The liquors subjected to clarifi-
cation are almost without exception those
animal or vegetable juices, in which the
matter that renders them turbid is so
nearly of the same specific gravity with
the liquor itself, that mere rest will not
effect a separation. In these too the li-
quid is generally rendered thicker than
usual by holding in solution much muci-
lage, which further entangles the turbid
matter, and prevents it from sinking.
Hence it is that vinous fermentation has
so powerful an effect as a clarifier, since
this process always implies the destruc-
tion of a pertion of saccharine mucilage,
and the consequent production of a thin
limpid spirit.

Coagulating substances are great clari-
fiers when mixed with any turbid liquor,
the process of coagulation entangling with
it all matters merely suspended and not
dissolved, and carrying them either to
the top in the form of a scum, or to the

bottom in the form of a thick sediment,
according to circumstances. Thus, to
clarify muddy cider, the liquor is beaten
up with a small quantity of fresh bul-
lock's blood, and suffered to stand at rest
for some hours, after which the liquor
above is as clear as water, and almost as
colourless, and at the bottom is a thi^k
tough cake, consisting of the coagulated
blood which has carried down with it all
the opaque matter suspended in the li-
quor. Albuminous and gelatinous sub-
stances act in the same manner. The
effect of white of egg in this way is
known to every one. It should be first
mixed with the turbid liquor without
heat, and by agitation. Afterwards, on
applying less than a boiling heat, the al-
bumen of the egg coagulates, and carries
up with it all the opaque particles, leav-
ing the rest beautifully clear and limpid.
Sometimes clarification takes place in a
very unaccountable manner. Thus, it is
well known that a handful of marl or
clay will clarify a large cistern of muddy
water, and marl is also used with advan-
tage in clarifying vinous liquors.

CLARINET, in music, a wind instru-
ment of the reed kind, the scale of
which, though it includes every semitone
within its extremes,is virtually defective.
Its lowest note is E, below F cliff, from
which it is capable, in the hands of good
solo performers, of ascending more than
three octaves. Its powers through this
compass are not every where equal ;
the player, therefore, has not a free
choice in his keys, being generally con-
fined to those of C and F, which are
the only keys in which the clarinet is
heard to advantage. The music for this
instrument is accordingly usually written,
in those keys.

CLARIOX, a kind of trumpet, whose
tube is narrower, and its tone acuter
and shriller, than that of the common
trumpet.

CLARO obscuro, or CLA in obscure, in
painting, the art of distributing to advan-
tage the lights and shadows of a piece,
both with regard to the easing of the eye,
and the effect of the whole piece. See
PAINTING.

CLASS, an appellation given to the
most general subdivisions of any thing.
Thus, in the Linnxan system of natu-
ral history, the animal creation is divid-
ed into six classes, viz. MAMMALIA,
AVES, AMPHIBIA, PISCES, INSECTA,
VEB.MES.

CLASS, in botany, denotes the primary
division of plants into large groups, each
of which is to be subdivided, by a regu-

CLA

lar downward progression, in orders, or
sections, as they are called by Tourne-
fort, genera, and species, with occasional
intermediate subdivisions, all subordinate
to the division which stands immediately
above them. So that the classes have
been compared to the first layer of a
truncated pyramid, which increases gra-
dually as it receives the orders, genera,
and occasional intermediate subdivisions,
till at length it terminates in an immense
base, consisting entirely of species. Ac-
cording to the definition of Linnaeus, a
class is founded on the agreement of the
several genera with each other in the
parts of fructification, according to the
principles of nature and art. It is ob-
served, that, in the formation of classes,
they should not be very numerous, and
thai their boundaries should be strongly
and distinctly marked.

CLATHRUS, in botany, a genus of
Fungi. Essential character : roundish,
consisting of a reticular, windowed, hol-
low body ; the ramifications connected
on every side. Linnaus reckons only
four species, other botanists seven and
eight.

CLAVA, in natural history, a genus of
Vernies Mollusca. Body fleshy, grega-
rious, clavate, and fixed by a round pe-
duncle ; aperture single and vertical.
There is but one species, viz. C. parasiti-
ca, covered with pellucid conic erect
spines. It inhabits the Baltic, on sea-
weeds, shell fish, and floating timber.
Like the Hydra it possesses the power
of dilating and contracting the mouth.
See HYDRA.

CLAVARIA, in botany, a genus of
Fungi ; one of the lowest order in the
scale of vegetation, differing sometimes
very little in substance from the rotten
wood whence it issues. It is a smooth
oblong body, of one wniform substance.

CLAVICLES, in anatomy, are two
bones situated transversely, and a little
obliquely opposite to each other, at the
superior and anterior part of the thorax,
between <he scapula and sternum.

CLAUSE, signifies an article or parti-
cular stipulation in a contract, a charge
or condition in a testament. &c.

Thus we say, a derogatory clause, a
'penal clause, saving clause, codicillary
clause, &c.

CLAY. Any natural earthy mixture,
which possesses plasticity and ductility
when kneaded up with water, is in com-
mon lang .age called a clay. All mine-
ralogists, however, have comprehended
within the appellation, not only clays,
properly so called) but a few other mine -

ral substances nearly allied to some of
the clays, and wh'.ch become plastic by
decomposition. Clay, however, is by no
means strictly a mineral species, being
in most cases the result ofthe decompo-
sition of other minerals. It seems ad-
visable, therefore, to consider the pro-
perty of plasticity as an essential cha-
racter, and to exclude from the class of
clays all earthy bodies that are destitute
of it.

Mineralogists have generally arranged
all the plastic clays under two species,
rather from the economical uses to which
they are applied, than according to their
external characters, composition, or geo-
logical situation. The first species is
the white infusible porcelain clay, and
the second contains all the rest com-
pounded together, under the general
appellation potter's clay. We have,
however, a different arrangement in
Aikin's dictionary, which we shall lay be-
fore the reader.

Essential character: plastic by inti-
mate mixture with water.

1. Porcelain clay. Its colour is gene-
rally reddish white, also greyish and yel-
lowish white; it has no lustre, no trans-
parency. It occurs either friable or com-
pact; stains the fingers ; adheres to the
tongue; is soft but meagre to the feel; is
easily broken. Specific gravity about
2.3. It falls to pieces in water, and by
kneading becomes ductile, though not in
a very great degree. The Cornish por-
celain clay'certainly originates from the
decomposition of felspar, and contains
particles of quartz, mica, and talc, from
which it is separated by eleutriation. The
Chinese kaolin also contains mica, and is
probably of the same origin as the Cor-
nish. The same remark may be applied
to the French, &c. It is, however, by no
means certain, that all porcelain clay is
derived from felspar, as it varies consi-
derably in its composition and fusibility;
all the kinds indeed are infusible at any
temperature less than a white heat ; but
some, especially the Japanese, are re-
fractory in the most powerful furnaces.
The Cornish clay, according to Wedge-
wood, consists of 60 per cent, alumina,

nd 40 si lex

2. Steatitic clay. Its colour is a light
flesh red, passing into cream colour; its
texture is minutely foliated ; it has a
slight somewhat greasy lustre, and takes
a polish from the nail. It stains the fin-
gers, is very friable, and has a smooth
unctuous feel. When laid on the tongue,
it dissolve^ into a smooth pulp, without
any gritty particles. It is very plastic,

CLA

and has a strong argillaceous odour. It
occurs in nodules, in a hard cellular horn
stone, that forms large mountainous masses
near Conway, in North Wales, and origi-
nates from the decomposition of indurat-
ed steatite.

3. Clay from slate. Its colour is ash-
grey, passing into ochre-yellow : its tex-
ture is foliated : it has a smooth unctuous
feel, and its siliceous particles are so
small, as to occasion scarcely any gritti-
ness between the teeth. It occurs in
thin beds on the tops of the softer kinds
of slate-rock, and from its impervious-
ness to water is always found lining the
bottoms of the peat-mosses, with which
this kind of mountains is generally cover-
ed, and in these situations it is of- a white
ash colour, being deprived of its iron
and carbon by the acid of the peat. It
also occurs in thicker beds at the foot of
the mountains, but is of a darker colour,
and less plastic.

4. Clay from shale. Its colour varies
from greyish blue to bluish black: its
texture is foliated : it has a smooth unc-
tuous feel, cakes a polish from the nail,
is excessively tenacious and ductile, and
has but a slight degree of grittiness. It
occurs abundantly in all collieries, and is
produced by the spontaneous decompo-
sition of the shale with which the beds of
coal are covered. A sandy clay, of a
greyer colour, and more refractory na-
ture, is procured from the decomposition
of the indurated clay that forms the
floor of the coal, and is provincialiy call-
ed clunch. The Stourbridge clay, from
which crucibles, glass-house pots, &c. are
made, is of this kind.

5. Clay from trap. At the foot of the
softer rocks of trap-formation, such as
wakke, clay-porphyry, and some varie-
ties of grunstein and hornblende rock,
are found in beds of clay, evidently ori-
ginating from the gradual disintegration
of these by the weather.

6. Marly clay. The colour of this is
bluish or brownish red : it occurs either
compactor foliated: it has a soft unc-
tuous feel, takes a polish by friction with
the nail, is very plastic, more or less
gritty, though not so much so as the com.
mon alluvial clay. It burns to a brick of
a buff or deep cream colour, and at a
high heat readily enters into fusion. It
effervesces strongly with acids, and con-
tains from one-fourth to one-tenth of
carbonated lime. It originates some-
times from the decomposition of com-
pact argillaceous lime-stone ; but more
frequently from the softer slaty varie-
ties usually called stone-marl. It is

largely employed as a manure, and where
the calcareous part does not exceed 10
or 12 per cent, it is esteemed as a mate-
rial for bricks.

7. Clay from metallic veins. Its colour
is grey, verging into bluish, greenish,
and yellowish, or red. It has a smooth
unctuous feel ; is very tenacious ; often
contains sulphuric acid, and certain me-
tallic oxides, which are never observed
in other clays, such as lead, silver, anti-
mony, copper and bismuth. Is found in
metallic veins.

8. Alluvial clay. The circumstances
which characterize alluvial clay are the
following. It contains a larger propor-
tion of quartz sand than the preceding ;
rounded pebbles of various kinds are
also imbedded in it ; thus showing it to
have been carried from its native situa-
tion, and mingled in its progress with a
variety of extraneous bodies. At least
three kinds of it may be distinguished ;
viz. pipe clay, potter's clay, and chalky
clay. Pipe clay is of a greyish or yellow-
ish white colour, an earthy fracture, and
a smooth greasy feel ; it adheres pretty
strongly to the tongue ; is very plastic
and tenacious ; when burnt, is of a milk-
white colour ; is difficultly fusible, though
much more so than porcelain clay, from
which it is further distinguished by its
superior plasticity, and the sand which it
contains. It is manufactured into tobac-
co pipes, and is the basis of the white or
queen's-ware pottery. Potter's clay is
of a reddish, bluish, or greenish colour ;
has a somewhat fine earthy fracture, and
a soft, often greasy feel : it adheres to
the tongue, and is very plastic. It
burns to a hard, porous, red brick ; and
in a higher heat runs into a dark colour-
ed flag. When tempered with water,
and mixed with sand, it is manufactured
into bricks : those varieties that are
the most free from pebbles are made into
tiles, and coarse red pottery. See ALU-
MINA.

CLAY stonet in mineralogy, is of a
greenish, bluish, or grey colour, some-
what marked by brownish yellow spots
and stripes. It occurs in mass, is opaque,
dull, frangible, and soft. It forms large
mountainous masses, occurring in beds
.and veins.

CLAYTONIA, in botany, so named in
honour of Mr. John Clayton, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Succulentae. Por-
tulaceze, Jussieu. Essential character:
calyx two valved ; corolla five petalled ;
stigma trifid ; capsule three valved, one-
celled, three-seeded. There are twr

CLE

Species, viz. C. Virginica and C. Sibirica,
and Pursh has described a new species
found in the United States.

CLEF, or CLIFF, in music, a mark set
at the beginning1 of the lines of a song,
which shows the tone or key in which
the piece is to begin ; or it is )a letter
marked on any line which explains the
rest. It is called clef, or key, because
hereby we know the names of all the
other lines, and consequently the quan-
tity of every degree or interval : but be-
cause every note in the octave is also
called a key, this letter marked is, for
distinction sake, denominated the signed
clef; and by this key is meant the prin-
cipal note of a song, in which the melody
closes. See Music.

CLEMATIS, in botany, virgin's bower,
a genus of the Poliandria Polygamia
class and order. Natural order of Mul-
tisiliquac. Ranunculaceae, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character : calyx none ; petals four,
sometimes five, or even six ; seeds
having a tail. There are twenty-one
species.

CLEOME, in botany, a genus of the
Tetradynamia Siliquosa class and order.
Natural order of Putaminex. Cappa-
rides, Jussieu. Essential character: nec-
tareous glands three, at each sinus of
the calyx, except the lowest ; petals all
ascending ; silique one-celled, two-valv-
ed. There are twenty-three species,
all of them natives of very warm coun-
tries.

CLEONIA, in botany, a genus of the
Didynamia Gymnospermia class and or-
der. Natural order of Verticillatse. La-
biatse, Jussieu. Essential character : fila-
ments forked, with an anther at one of
the tips; stigma four-cleft. There is but
one species, viz. C. lusitanica, sweet-
scented cleonia, is an annual plant, na-
tive of Spain and Portugal.

CLEPSYDRA, a water-clock, or in-
strument to measure time by the fall of a
certain quantity of water.

The construction of a Clepsydra. To di-
vide any cylindrical vessels into parts, to
be emptied in each division of time, the
time wherein the whole, and that where-
in any part is to be evacuated, being
given. Suppose a cylindrical vessel,
whose charge of water flows out in twelve
hours, were required to be divided into
parts to be evacuated each hour. 1. As
the part of time 1 is to the whole time
12, so is the same time 12 to a fourth
proportional 144. 2. Divide the altitude
of the vessel into 144 equal parts: here
the last will fall to the last hour : the

three next above to the last part but
one; the five next to the tenth hour;
lastly, the twenty-three last to the first
hour. For since the times increase in
the series of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, &c. and the altitudes, if the nume-
ration be in a retrogade order from the
twelfth hour, increase in the series of the
unequal numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. the al-
titudes computed from the twelfth hour
will be as the squares of the times 1,4,
9, 16, 25, &c. Therefore the squares of
the whole time, 144, comprehend all the
parts of the altitude of the vessel to be
evacuated. But a third proportional to
1 and 12 is the square of 12, and conse-
quently it is the number of equal parts in
which the altitude is to be divivided, to be
distributed, according to the series of the
unequal numbers, through the equal in-
terval of hours. There were many kinds
of clepsydrae among the ancients; but
they all had this in common, that the
water ran generally through a narrow
passage, from one vessel to another,
and in the lower was a piece of cork
or light wood, which, as the vessel
filled, rose up by degrees, and showed
the hour.

CLERGY, a general name given to the
body of ecclesiastics of the Christian
church, in contradistinction to the laity.
The privileges and immunities which the
clergy of the primitive Christian church
enjoyed deserve our notice. In the first
place, when they travelled upon neces-
sary occasions, they were to be enter-
tained by their brethren of the clergy, in
all places, out of the public revenues of
the church. When any bishop, or pres-
byter, came to a foreign church, they
were to be complimented with the hono-
rary privilege of performing divine offi-
ces, and consecrating the eucharist in
the church. The great care the clergy
had of the characters and reputations of
those of their order appears from hence,
that in all accusations, especially against
bishops, they required the testimony of
two or three witnesses of good charac-
ter : nor was any heretic admitted as an
evidence against a clergyman. With re*
gard to the respect paid to the clergy by
the civil government, it consisted chief-
ly in exempting them from some kind
of obligations to which others were
liable, and granting them certain privi-
leges and immunities which others did
not enjoy.

. By the ecclesiastical laws, no clergy-
man was allowed to relinquish his sta-
tion without just grounds and leave ;
but in some cases resignation was allow-

OLE

ULE

ed of, as in old age, sickness, or other in-
firmities.

The privileges of the English clergy,
by the ancient statutes, are very consid-
erable ; their goods are to pay no toll in
• fairs or markets ; they are exempt from
all offices but their own ; from the king's
carriages, posts, &c. ; from appearing at
sheriff's tourns, or frank pledges ; and
are not to be fined or amerced according
to their spiritual, but their temporal,
means. A clergyman acknowledging a
statute, his body is not to be imprisoned.
If he be convicted of a crime, for which
the benefit of clergy is allowed, he
shall not be burnt in the hand ; and he
shall have the benefit of the clergy in in-
Jtnitum, which no layman can have more
than once.

The clergy, by common law, are not to
be burdened in the general charges of
the laity ; nor to be troubled nor incum-
bered, unless expressly named and
charged by the statute; for general
words do not affect them : thus, if a
hundred be sued for a robbery, the mini-
ster shall not contribute ; neither shall
they be assessed to the highway, to the
watch, &.c.

The revenues of the clergy were an-
ciently more considerable than at pre-
sent. Ethelwolph, in 855, gave them a
tythe of all goods, and a tenth of all the
lands in England, free from all secular
services, taxes, &c. The charter where-
by this was granted them, was confirm-
ed by several of his successors ; and
William the Conqueror, finding the
bishoprics so rich, created them into
baronies, each barony containing thir-
teen knight's fees at least ; but since the
reformation the bishoprics are much im-
poverished. The revenues of the infe-
rior clergy, in the general, are small,
a third part of the best benefices being
anciently, by the Pope's grant, appro-
priated to monasteries, upon the disso-
lution whereof they became lay -fees. In-
deed an addition was made, 2 Annx,
the whole revenues of first-fruits and
tenths being then granted, to raise a fund
for the augmentation of the maintenance
of the poor clergy; pursuant to which a
corporation was formed; to whem the
said revenues were conveyed in trust,
&c.

CLERGY, benefit of. See BENEFIT.

CLERK, a word originally used to de-
note a learned man, or a man of letters ;
whence the term became appropriated
to churchmen, who were from thence
c 'ied clerks or clergymen ; the nobility
and gentry being usually bred up to the

exercise of arms, and none left but
the ecclesiastics to cultivate the sci-
ences.

CLERK of the affidavits, the officer, in
the Court of Chancery, who files all affi-
davits made use of in court.

CLERK of the assize, the person who
writes all things judicially done by the
justices of assize in their circuits.

CLERK of the bails, an officer in the
court of King's Bench, whose business it
is to file all bail- pieces taken in that court,
where he always attends.

CLERK of the check, an officer belonging
to the King's court, so called, because he
has the check and contfolment of the
yeomen of the guard, and all other ordi-
nary yeomen that belong to the king,
queen, or prince. He likewise, by him-
self or deputy, sets the watch in the
court. There is also an officer in the
navy of the same name, belonging to the
king's yards.

CLERK of the crown, an officer in the
king's Bench, who frames, reads, and re-
cords all indictments against offenders,
there arraigned or indicted of any pub-
lic crime. He is likewise termed clerk of
the crown-office, in which capacity he ex-
hibits informations, by order of the
court, for divers offences.

CLERK of the crown, in chancery, an
officer whose business it is constantly to
attend the Lord Chancellor, in person or
by deputy, to write and prepare for the
great seal special matters of state by
commission, both ordinary and extraordi-
nary ; viz. commissions of lieutenancy, of
justices of assize, oyer and terminer, gaol
delivery, and of the peace ; all general
pardons, granted either at the king's
coronation, or in parliament : the writs
of parliament, with the names of the
knights, citizens, and burgesses, are
also returned into his office. He also
makes out special pardons, and writs of
execution on bonds of statute-staple for-
feited.

CLLRK of the declarations, he that files
all declarations after they are ingrossed,
in causes depending in the court of king's
bench.

CLERK of the deliveries, an officer of the
tower, whose function is to take inden-
tures for all stores and ammunition issued
from thence.

CLERK of the errors, in the court of Com-
mon Pleas, an officer who transcribes, and
certifies into the king's bench, the tenor
of the record of the action on which the
writ of error made out by the cursitor is
brought there to be determined. In the
king's bench the clerk of the errors tran-

CLE

sortbes and certifies the re cords of causes
by hil!. in that court, into the Exchequer:
and the business of the clerk of the errors
in the Exchequer is, to transcribe the re-
cords certified thither out of the king's
bench, and to prepare them for juclg-
mewt in the Exchequer chamber.

CLERK of the essoins, in the court of
Common Pleas, keeps the essoin roll, or
enters essoins: he also provides parch-
ment, cuts it into rolls, marks the number
on them, delivers out all the rolls to every
officer, and receives them again when
written. See Essom.

CLERK of the estreats, an officer in the
Exchequer, who every term receives the
estreats out of the Lord Treasurer's re-
membrancer's office, and writes them
out to be levied for the crown.

CLERK of the hamper, or hanaper, an
•fficer in chancery, whose business is to
receive all money due to the king for the
seals of charters, letters patent, commis-
sions, and writs ; also the fees due to the
officer for enrolling and examining them.

CT.ERK of the enrolments, an officer of the
court of Common Pleas, that enrols and
exemplifies all fines and recoveries, and
returns writs of entry.

CLERK of the juries, an officer of the
Common Pleas, who makes out the writs
called habeas corpus and distringas, for
juries to appear either in that court, or at
the assizes, after thepannelsare returned
upon the venire facias. He likewise en-
ters into the rolls the awarding these
writs, and makes all the continuances till
verdict is given.

CLERK comptroller of the king's house-
hold, an officer of the king's court, au-
thorised to allow or disallow the charges
of pursuivants, messengers of the green
cloth, &c. to inspect and controul all de-
fects of any of the inferior officers, awd to
sit in the counting-house with the lord
steward and other officers of the house-
hold, for regulating such matters.

CLERK of the king's silver, an officer of
the Common Pleas, to whom every fine is
brought after it has passed the office of
the custos brevium ; and who enters the
effect ot writs of covenant into a book,
kept for that purpose, according to which
all the fines of that term are recorded in
the rolls of the court.

CLERK of the king's great wardrobe, an
officer who keeps an account of all things
belonging to the wardrobe.

CLERK of the market, an officer of the
king's house, to whom is given the charge
of the king's measures and weights, the

standards of those that ought to be used
all over England.

CLERK of the ordnance, an officer that
registers all orders concerning the king's
ordnance in the tower.

CLERK of the outlawries, an officer of the
Common Pleas, and deputy to the Attor-
ney-General, for making out ail writs of
capias utlagntum, after outlawry, to which
there must be the king's attorney's name.

CLERK of the paper-office, an officer be-
longing to the king's bench, whose busi-
ness is to make up the paper-books of
special pleadings in that court.

CLERK of the Parliament-rolls, an officer
in the House of Lords, and likewise in the
House of Commons, who records all trans-
actions in parliament, and engrosses them
fairly in parchment rolls.

CLERK of the peace, an officer belonging
the sessions of the peace, whose busi-
ness is to read indictments, inrol the pro-
ceedings, and draw the process; he like-
wise certifies into the king's bench tran-
scripts of indictments, outlawries, attain-
ders, and convictions, had before the jus-
tices of the peace, within the time limited
by statute under a certain penalty. This
office is in the gift of the Custos Rotulorum,
and may be executed by deputy.

CLERK of the pells, an officer that be-
longs to the Exchequer, whose business
is to enter every teller's bill into a parch-
ment roll, called pel Us receptonim, and to
make another roll of payments, called
pellis exituum.

CLKRK of the petty hag, an officer of the
court of chancery, whereof there are
three, the master of the rolls being the
chief: their business is to record the re-
turn of all inquisitions out of every shire,
to make out patents of customers, gau-
gers, comptrollers, &c. liberates upon ex-
tents of statutes staple, conge d'elires for
bishops, summons of the nobility, clergy,
and burgesses to parliament, and commis-
sions directed to knights, and others, of
every shire, for assessing subsidies and
taxes.

CLERK of the pipe, an officer of the Ex-
chequer, who, having the accounts of all
debts due to the king delivered out of the
remembrancer's office, charges them in a
great roll, folded up like a pipe. He
writes out warrants to sheriffs, to levy the
said debts on the goods and chattels of
the debtors : and if they have no goods,
then he draws them down to the treas-
urer's remembrancer, to write estreats
against their lands

CLERK of the pleas, an officer of the En-

OLE

CLI

chequer, in whose office all the officers
of the court, having special privilege,
ought to sue or be sued in any action.
In this office also actions at law may be
prosecuted by other persons, but the
plaintiff ought to be tenant or debtor to
the King, or some way accountable to him.
The under clerks are attorneys in all suits.

CLERKS of the privy-seal) four officers
that attend the Lord-privy-seal, for writ-
ing and making out all things that are
sent by warrant from the signet to the
privy-seal, and to be passed the great-
seal ; and likewise to make out privy-
seals, upon special occasions of his. Majes-
ty's affairs, as for loan of money, or the
like,

CLERK of the rolls, an officer of the
chancery, whose business is to make
searches after and copies of deeds, offi-
ces, &c.

CLERK of the rules, an officer of the
court of King's Bench, who draws up and
enters all the rules and orders made in
court, and gives rules of course in divers
writs.

CLERK of tfie signet, an officer continu-
ally attendant upon his Majesty's princi-
pal secretary, who has the custody of the
privy signet, as well for sealing the" King's
private letters, as those grants which pass
the king's hand by bill signed. There are
four of these officers, who have their diet
at the secretary's table.

CLERKS, six, officersjn chancery, next
in degree below the twelve masters,
v\hose business it is to enrol commissions,
pardons, patents, warrants, &c. which
pass the great seal ; they were anciently
clerici, and forfeited their places if they
married. They are also attorneys tor
parties in suits depending in the court of
chancery.

CLERK of the supersedeas, an officer of
the Common pleas, who makes out writs
of supersedeas, forbidding the sheriff to
return the exigent upon a defendant's
appearing thereto on an outlawry.

CLERK of the treasury, an officer belong-
ing to the court of Common Pleas, who
has the charge of keeping the records of
the court, makes out all records of nisi
prius, and likewise all exemplifications
of records being in the treasury. He has
the fees due for all searches ; and has un-
der him an under-keeper, who always
keeps one key of the treasury door.

CLERK of the ivarrmits, an officer of the
Common Pleas, whose business is to enter
-ill warrants of attorney for plaintiffs and
defendants in suit; and to enrol deeds of
feargain and sale, that are acknowledged

VOL, III.

in court or before a judge. His office is
likewise to estreat into the Exchequer all
issues, fines, estreats, and amercements,
which grow due to the crown in that
court.

CLERODENDRUM, in botany,a genus
of the Didy namia Angiospermia class and
order. Natural order of Personate. Viti-
ces, Jussieu, Essential character : calyx
five-cleft, bell-shaped; corolla with a fili-
form tube and funnel shaped, five part-
ed, equal border ; stamina very long, gap-
ing very much between the segments.
Berry one-seeded. There are eight spe-
cies, natives of the East Indies, China,
and Japan.

CLETHRA, in botany, a genus of the
Decandria Monogynia class and order.
Nat. order of Bicornes. Ericze, Jussieu.
Essential character: calyx live-paried;
petals five ; stigma trifid ; capsule three-
celled, three-valved. There are four spe-
cies, natives of North America.

CLIBADIUM, in botany, a genus of the
Monoecia Pentandri a class and order. Na-
tural order of Composite Oppostifolix.
Corymbifers, Jussieu. Essential charac-
ter : male common calyx imbricate ; co-
rolla of the disk five-cleft ; female com-
mon calyx the same ; corolla of the ray
female three or four ; seed an umbihcate
drupe. There is but one species, viz. C.
surinamense, native of Surinam.

CL1FFORTIA, in botany, so named in
honour of George Clifford, a mercnani at
Amsterdam, and a considerable botanist,
a genus of the Dioecia Polyandna class
and order. Natural order of 1 ricoccse.
Rosaces, Jussieu. Essential character :
male calyx three-ieaveu, superior; sta-
mens about thirty. Female calyx Uiree-
leaved, superior; corolia none; styles c\vo;
capsule two-celled; seeds one. 'Iheie are
nineteen species,alishruus from the Cape
of Good Hope.

CLIMACTERIC, among physicians and
natural historians, a critical year in a ,.cr-
son's life, in which he is supposed uo
stand in great danger of death.

According to some every seventh year
is a climacteric; but others aliov. only
those years produced by multiplying 7,
by the odd numbers 3, 5, 7, and 9, ..o be
climactencal. These years, they say,
bring with them some remarkable change
with respect to health, life or fortune :
the grand climacteric is the sixty-third
year ; but some, making two, add to this
the eighty-first : the oiner remarkable
climacterics are.the seventh, twcn.} -first,
thirty-fifth, forty-ninth, and tiffy-s.xih.
The credit of climacteric years can only

n d

CLI

be supported by the doctrine of numbers
introduced by Pythagoras; though many
eminent men, both among the ancients
and moderns, appear to have hud great
faith in it.

CLIMATE, in geography, a space
upon the surface of the terrestrial globe,
contained between two paiallels, and so
far distant from each other, that the
longest day in one differs half an hour
from the longest day in the other paral-
lel. The difference of climates arises
from the different inclination or obliqui-
ty of the sphere ; the ancients took the
parallel wherein the length of the long-
est day is twelve hours and threequarters
for the beginning of the first climate; as t o
those parts that are nearer to the equa-
tor than that parallel, they were not ac-
counted to bein any climate,eitherbecause
they may, in a loose and general sense,
be considered as being in a right sphere,
though, strictly speaking, only the parts
under the equator are so; or because they
•were thought to be uninhabited by reason
of the heat, and were besides unknown.
The ancients, considering the diversity
there is in the rising and setting of the
heavenly bodies, especially the sun, and,
in consequence thereof, the difference
in the length of the clays and nights in
different places, divided as much of the
earth as was known to them into cli-
mates : and instead of the method now
in use, of setting down the latitude of
places in degrees, they contented them-
selves with saying in what climate the
place under consideration was situated.
According to them, therefore, what they
judged the habitable part of the northern
hemisphere was divided into seven cli-
mates, to which the like number of south-
ern ones corresponded. A parallel is
said to pass through the middle of a cli-
mate, when the longest day in that paral-
lel differs a quarter of an hour from the
longest day in either of the extreme pa-
rallels that bound the climate : this pa-
rallel does not divide the climate into
two equal parts, but the part nearest to
the equator is largerthan the other, be-
cause the farther we go from the equator
the less increase of latitude will be suf-
ficient to increase the length of the long-
est day a quarter of an hour.

Some of the moderns reckon the dif-
ferent climates by the increase of "half an.
hour in the length of the longest day, be-
ginningat the equator, and going on till
they come to the polar circle towards the
pole ; they then count the climates by
the increase of a whole natural d:w, in the

length of the longest day, till they come
to a parallel, under which the day is of
the length of fifteen natural clays, or half
a month ; from this parallel they proceed
to reckon the climates by the increase of
half or whole months in the artificial day,
till they come to the pole itself, under
which the length of the day is six months.
Those between the equator and the polar
circles are called hour climates : and
those between the polar circles and the
poles monthly climates. Vulgarly, the
term climate is bestowed on any country
or region differing from one another,
either in respect of the seasons, the qua-
lity of the soil, or even the mannersof the
inhabitants, without any regard to the
length of the longest day.

CLIMAX, in rhetoric, a figure, where-
in the word or expression which ends
the first member of a period begins the
second, and so on ; so that every mem.
ber will make a distinct sentence, taking
its rise from the next foregoing, till the
argument and period be beautifully fi-
nished.

CLIMBING plants, in gardening, are
such plants as ascend either spirally
round supports, or by means of claspers
and tendrils. They are either herbaceous
or wood)', and which, according to their
mode of climbing, may be denominated
twining climbers, cirrhous climbers, and
parasitic climbers. The first sort includes
all such as have winding1 stalks, and twist
about, any neighbouring support; such as
scarlet kidney beans, hops, and some sort
of honey-suckle. The second kind com-
prehends all such as ascend by means of
spiral strings, issuing from the sides of
the stalks and branches, or from the foot-
stalks of the leaves, and even from the
leaves themselves, twisting about any
thing they meet with, by which their
stalks are supported and arrive at their
proper height ; such as most of the pea-
tribe, cucumber, vine, passion-flower,
and various others. And the last plants
are also of the same kind, but their clasp-
ers plant themselves as roots in the bark
of the plants on which they ascend, or in
the crevices of walls or pales, thereby
supporting themselves, and mounting- to
their tops; as the ivy, Virginia creeper,
radicant bignonia, and several others.

CLINCHING, in the sea-language, a
kind of slight caulking used at sea, in a
prospect of foul weather, about the ports:
it consists in driving a little oakum into
their seams, to prevent the waters com-
ing in at them.

'CLINK stone, in mineralogy, nearly

CLO

allied to BASALT, which see. It has re-
ceived its name from the sound which it
gives when struck. It occurs massive,
And forms beds, and sometimes assumes
the columnar form; its colour is grey,
with shades of green and yellow. Ics
specific gravity is 2.5, and it is composed
of x

Silex .... 57.25

Alumina . . . 23.5

Oxide of iron . 2..25

Manganese . . 25

Soda .... 8.10

Water . 3.

Loss .

9435

5.65

100

CLINOPODIUM, in botany, a genus
of the Didynamia Gymnospermia class
and order. Natural order of Verticillatae.
Labiate, Jussieu. Essential character :
involucre many bristled under the whorl.
There are five species.

CLIO, in natural history, a genus of
Vermes Mollusca ; body oblong, noyant,
generally sheathed, and furnished with
two dilated membranaceous arms or
wing-like processes? tentacula three, be-
sides two in the mouth. There are six
species. The C. retuso uses its arms or
wings, which are submembranaceous, like
a pair of oars.

CLITORIA, in botany, a genus of the
Diadelphia Decandria class and order.
Natural order of Papilionaceae or Legu-
minoseae. Essential character: corolla
i nverted ; standard very large, spreading,
overshadowing the wings. There are
five species.

CLITORIS. See ANATOMY.

CLOCK, in horology, is a machine
which measures time with a degree of
accuracy that gives it a just preference
over the clepsydrx, and other methods
anciently used for the same purpose.
See CLEPSYDRA

The sphere of Archimedes, made two
hundred years before the birth of Christ,
is usually considered as the first attempt
at the formation of a clock ; it had, indeed,
a maintaining power, but, being without
any kind of regulator, could only measure
time as a planetarium exhibits the motion
of the stars, with relative, but not with
positive precision.

In 1232, a machine for measuring time
was sent by the Sultan of' Egypt to the
{•'mperor Frederic II. but this, if it had

any regulating part, most probably had
none superior to the flyer of a common
roasting jack. Wallingford, at the begin -
ing of the fourteenth century, and Dondi,
at the end of the same, have each had the
honour of being supposed the first inven-
tors of clocks; the account given of Don-
di's clock by Petrus Paulus Vergerius (in
Vit. Princip. Carrar. torn. 16.) makes it
nearly similar to our church clocks; as,
like them, it was placed on the upper part
of a turret, or steeple, and spontaneously
pointed out each of the twenty-four hours
in succession. There is still, however,
some doubt whether Dondi was the origi-
nal inventor.

Boethius, at the end of the fifth century,
Pacificus, about the middle of the ninth,
and Gerbert, at the end of the tenth, are
also regarded as the inventors of clocks,
but on rather doubtful authority.

There are many documents to prove
the- existence of clocks, with wheels and
weights, in the middle of the fourteenth
century, and therefore there is more rea-
son for assigning this period to the inven-
tion than any other.

On comparing the various testimonies
relative to the origin of the clock, the fair-
est conclusion seems to be, that it is nei-
ther of so ancient a date as some writers
suppose, nor yet among those more recent
inventions which are placed in the last
two centuries; and that the first inventor
is not certainly known.

The opinion of Fer. Berthoud, who has
written more on the subject of clock-work
than any other man, is evidently most just,
which asserts, that the clock is not the in-
vention of any one man, but an assemblage
of successive inventions, each of which is
worthy of a separate contriver.' 1 Wheel-
work which was known in the time of
Archimedes ; 2. the application of the
weight as a maintaining power; 3. .tie use
of the fly as a regulator ; 4. the. ratchet
wheel and click ; 5. the substitution of
the balance for the fly; and the escape-
ment, which was necessariv introduced
at the same time ; 6 the application of
the dial and hands : and 7. the addition
of the sinking part.

In *he clock which was placed in a tow-
er <»t the palace of Charles V. in 1364,
by Henry <le Wick, the reg'Uating part
consisted of a balance, which vibrated
backwards and forwards by an escape-
ment like that of common watches ; it
h.J no balance spring, but this deficien-
cy was :n some measric supplied by the
mode in wlucv. V. \\.is iuvV *o move ; its
arbor was vertical, and instead of resting

CLOCK.

on its lower point was suspended from
above by a double cord, or cat-gut ; the
twisting of this cord, caused by each vi-
bration, tended to raise the balance, and
its own weight made it descend again,
and at the same time turn round in the
opposite direction, when the impulse of
the first pallet ceased to act on it. The
balance was very heavy, as weight was
necessary to make it act in the above
manner; and this has caused the mode
of its operation to be mistaken by many,
who supposed that the cord was" merely
added to prevent the great friction on
the lower end of the arbor, which the
weight of the balance would cause.

The introduction of the spiral spring,
as a first mover, instead of a weight,
took place about the beginning of the
sixteenth century. Mr. Peckett, of Old
Compton-street, had one of this construc-
tion, which, from an inscription on it in
the Bohemian language, was made by
Jacob Lech, of Prague, in . the year
1525.

Clocks with the balances above de-
scribed, imperfect as they were, gave,,
however, some assistance to astronomy.
Tycho Brahe had four of them, but of
such a massy construction, that a single
wheel in one of them, which had but three
wheels, contained 1200 teeth, and was
three feet in diameter. These clocks
continued in use till about 1650, when
a new icra in the art commenced, by
the application of the pendulum as a re-
gulator.

Bernard, one of the professors of as-
tronomy at Oxford, in the last century,
lias asserted that the Arabians used pen-
dulums in astronomy long before the
above period, (as we know that Ricoli,
Tycho Brahe, Langrenus, Vendelin,
Mersenne, Kircher, Hevelius, Monton,
and Galileo himself did,) in a detached
state ; but we do not find that any of them
used it in conjunction with wheel work.
According to professor Venturi, Sancto-
rius applied a pendulum to clock-work
some time before the year 1625 ; and
Becker mentions a native of Switzerland,
called Juste Birge, who did the same in
1597 ; but these experiments, if really
made, never were sufficiently made pub-
lic to benefit the world.

The person to whom mankind is real-
ly indebted, for bringing this important
discovery into universal notice, is the
celebrated Christian Huygens, of Zuy-
lichem, who, in his excellent treatise
" De Horologio Oscillatorio," has de-
scribed the construction of a pendulum

clock, and proved that he made one L/C
fore the year 1658.

Galileo is supposed to have claims to
the priority of the invention of the mode
of applying the pendulum to clock-work,
and his son Vincentio Galilei is reported
(Exper. del Acad. del Cimento) to have
made a pendulum clock so early as in
1649, at Venice, suggested by his father's
discoveries. But it is thought that Huy-
gens' method was much more masterly
and scientific ; and that the world is not
under any obligation to Galileo for the
invention ; for, if he really made it, the
manner of performing it was kept so se-
cret, that Huygens himself never heard
of it, though one of the most philosophi-
cal characters of his time. There has
another claimant appeared of late years
for the honour of the invention, on the
authority of Mr. Thomas Grignon, of Rus-
sel-street, Covent Garden, who produces
a well authenticated writing of his fa-
ther's, to prove his having seen the in-
scription on the great clock, formerly
fixed in the turret of St. Paul's, Covent
Garden, which ascertained that it was
made by Richard Harris, of London, in
1641. This clock was regulated by a
long pendulum ; and, if the above infor-
mation is correct, must have been one of
the first made, as it precedes that said to
have been constructed by Vincentio Ga-
lilei by eight years. Mr. Grignon senior
was a very ingenious mechanist, and a
man of excellent character, and brought
to perfection the horizontal principle in
watches, and the dead beat in clocks,
which the celebrated Tompion and Gra-
ham were unable to effect. These cir-
cumstances render his testimony of con-
siderable weight.

Huygens must, however, still be con-
sidered as the chief introducer of the in-
vention, which no one disputes having
been made by him, even though others
may be supposed to have made it like-
wise, unknown to him. He also invented
a clock with a centrifugal regulator,
which is contrived to perform its move-
ment in a curve that he has demonstrat-
ed will render its gyrations isochronal,
and which, at least, is worthy of a farther
investigation, before it be condemned to
an oblivion that it probably does not me-
rit. But his discovery of the isochronism
of all vibrations made by a pendulum
formed to move in a cycloidal curve is
that which is the most noted, although it
has never yet been really applied to use.
Mr. Huygens' method of doing so has
been shown clearly to be erroneous, by
Mr. Alexander Cummings, in his " Trea-

CLOCK.

iise on Clock and Watch Making," pub-
lished in 1766, who has also asserted that
the cycloidal principle would not be of
the benefit imagined, " as the inequality
of the vibrations of the pendulum moving
in a circular arc correct those caused by
the alteration of its weight from the va-
riations of atmospherical gravity, so as
mutually to balance each other, while in
those moving in cycloidal curves there
is no principle to counteract the varia-
tions of gravity." It must, however, be
noticed, that Mr. Cummings is evidently
not correct in his statement, that the loss
of specific gravity in the pendulum,
caused by an increase in the weight of
the atmosphere, would equally tend to
prolong its vibrations, as the increased
resistance caused to its motion by the
same means would tend to diminish
them, as he has by no means proved the
equality of those opposite effects. Mr.
Cummings also mistakes the loss of rela-
tive gravity for the loss of real gravity ;
the momentum of a body in motion is ge-
nerally considered to be the same in dif-
ferent mediums, except so far as the ad-
ditional resistance from a denser medium
retards it, and so far from Mr. Cum-
ming's opinion in opposition to this be-
ing as evident as he supposes, it is well
known that no proof has ever been ad-
vanced to support it.

Many very curious and useful theo-
rems have been discovered relative to
the pendulum, most of which originated
with Huygens, among these one of the
most noted is, that " the times wherein
pendulums of different lengths perform
their vibrations, are to one another in the
same proportion with the square roots of
the lengths of the pendulums."

The length of a pendulum vibrating
Inches.

in £ a second is

9781 Halley.
9.801 Newton.

And from these data, and the above
theorem, the lengths of pendulums to vi-
brate any other required time may be
determined.

The next improvement of consequence
on clocks, after the pendulum, was the es-
capement performed with anchorpallets,
which Bcrthoud states to have been the
invention of Clement, a London clock-
maker, in the year 1680. The escape-
ment used by Huygens, and still continu-
ed .n many chamber clocks and all the
wooden clocks, is that made by two flat

pallets attached to an horizontal arbor,
acting at opposite sides of the upper part
of a horizontal crown wheel ; the anchor
pallets, on the contrary, act on a vertical
swing wheel, and move in the plane of
the wheel. The chief advantage of the
anchor pallets is, that they will permit
the escape to take place with a small
angle of vibration, so as to prevent the
maintaining power from acting on the
pallets a long time by a direct push, as
was the case with the crown wheel es-
capement.

Dr. Hooke also claimed the invention
of the anchor escapement, which he as-
serted that he exhibited to the Royal So-
ciety in a clock of his construction in
1666.

At the same time with the anchor es-
capement, the mode of suspending the
pendulum from a clock by apiece of watch
spring was introduced.

The anchor escapement causes a re-
coil in the swing wheel, from the same
face of the pallet striking the tootle of
the wheel in its descent, which is after-
wards impelled by the same tooth in its
ascent ; this occasions the clock, in
which it is used, to go faster, when the
maintaining power is increased, or when
the weight of the pendulum ball is dimi-
nished.

The advantage gained by the anchor
escapement shewn above may be consi-
dered in reality an approximation to a de-
tached escapement ; a farther step was
made towards this improvement about
the year 1715, by the celebrated George
Graham, in the contrivance of the dead-
beat escapement, which is principally
distinguished *from the anchor escape-
ment by having no recoil. This is ef-
fected by increasing the depth of the
pallets in the line towards the centre of
the swing wheel, and so forming the
teeth of that wheel, that the pallet in ac-
tion, in its descent, does not touch the
teeth at all, but lies between them, and
the tooth that impels it only comes in
contact with its inclined plane at the in-
stant previous to its ascent, when the op-
posite pallet becomes free. To avoid the
wearing out of the parts most in action,
and the influence of friction, the best
clocks of this construction have swing
wheels of hardened steel, with pallets of
ruby or agate.

The detached escapement completed
the improvement of th is part of clock-
work. Its object is, to make the pendu-
lum perform the greatest part of each vi-
bration entirely free from contact, or con-
nection, with any part of the train. To

CLOCK.

effect tliis, a catch, or locking piece, re-
strains all the motion of the swing1 wheel,
till the instant when the pallet is to be
impelled by it, when it raises the catch,
sets the wheel free, and is driven for-
ward by its impulse ; immediately after
which, the catch again falls into its place.
A great variety of escapements have
been contrived on this principle by vari-
ous ingenious men : those in which springs
are usedin the locking pieces instead of
pivots, invented by Arnold, seem now
most preferred.

The detached escapement was applied
first to chronometers, or time-pieces, but
is now used for astronomical clocks.
From the best accounts, Julien Le Roy
invented the first about 1748 ; since that
time, Grignon, Mudge, Cummins, Nichol-
son, and Arnold, have contrived various
escapements of this kind in England; and
Peter Le Hoy, Sully., Du Tertre, De Be-
thune, Le Paute, Arnaut, Robin, Ber-
thoud, &c. on the continent. See CURO-

NOMETKtt.

In the year 1715, Mr. George Graham,
before mentioned, made a most material
improvement in pendulums, by affixing
an apparatus which tended to raise the
centre of gravity of the whole, as much as
the lengthening of the rod by heat tended
to depress it: this he performed by sub-
stituting a glass cylinder, containing mer-
cury, for the pendulum ball. He after-
wards suggested the idea of using the
opposite expansions of different metals,
as a compensation for the effects of vari-
ation of temperature of the air in pendu-
lums, which was directly afterwards
adopted by Harrison, at that time an ob-
scure carpenter in the village of Barton,
Lincolnshire, who surprised the world
with the invention of the gridiron pendu-
lum on this principle.

In Harrison's pendulum five bars of
steel and four of brass were so arranged,
that they produced two expansions of
brass upwards, and three of steel down-
wards, so proportioned to each other,
that the ascending expansions fully com-
pensated those in the contrary direction.
This pendulum has been since its inven-
tion generally used, where very accurate
measurement of time was necessary. A
further description of it, of Elliot's pen-
dulum, (which was the next made on this
plan, and differs little from it,) and of the
others here mentioned, will be inserted
under the article PEXUULUM.

It has been supposed by several, that
the tubular pendulum (which is also a
modification of Harrison's compensation)

is but a very recent invention : but the
writer of this article having met with one
by accident, which was made upwards of
thirty years ago, thinks it but justice,
both to the public, and the ingenious ar-
tist who directed its construction, to op-
pose this opinion. This pendulum is in
possession of Mr. Patoureaux, watch and
clock-maker. 15, Wardour-street. It was
made by Mr. William Brown, a clock-
maker well known to the trade, who has
been dead upwards of five years, and
who formerly resided nearthe Seven Di-
als. His brother, ajeweller, residing in
15, Coventry Court, Hay-market, was his
executor, and sold the pendulum to Mr.
Barrett, clock-maker, of Compton-street,
some years ago, from whence Mr. Pa-
toureaux bought it. Mr. Brown, the jew-
eller, informed the writer that this pen-
dulum had been made by his brother up-
wards of thirty ^years ago, just after he
had served his time to Mr. Chandler, then
of King-street, Seven Dials, (whom he
afterwards succeeded in his business;)
and that it was made by direction of Mr.
Chandler, who, as far as he knew, was
the inventor of it : and in corroboration
of this assertion, Mr. Hampson, working
clock-maker, 22, Greek-street, Soho,
declares, that he made several pendulums
of the same construction for Mr. Brown,
upwards of seven years ago. This tubu-
lar pendulum, which at present we must
attribute to the ingenuity of Mr. Chand-
ler, is composed of two tubes and a
rod of iron, and two tubes of brass. The
iron rod is about a quarter of an inch in
diameter, and is suspended by a spring
in the common manner ; it is inclosed by
the first brass tube, to which it is con-
nected at bottom : an iron tube, sup-
ported by the top of the brass tube, then
descends a little below it, and supports
by its lower extremity the second brass
tube, which rises a little above the for-
mer tubes, and from the top of it the se-
cond iron tube descends below all about
two inches, into the substance of the
pendulum bob, which is very large and
heavy: the bottom of this last tube con-
tains a nut, into which a screw (having*
a milled head beneath that sustains the
bob) passes from below, and raises or
lowers the bob, as required for the ad-
justment . of the rate * of going of the
clock. We may date the invention of
the tubular pendulum, from the fore-
going information, about the year 1775,
though it may yet be found to be of
a still earlier period. The foreman of
Mr. Villaumy, clock-maker to the Prince

CLOCK,

of Wales, Pall Mall, declares, that lie
remembers a tubular pendulum to have
been u.. le by Mr. Finney, a well
known clock-maker of Liverpool, up-
wards of forty years ago, and that it is
now in the possession of Mr. De Mem-
bry, of Richmond, but time will not per-
mit the farther investigation of this point
at present.

The last modification of the longitu-
dinal compensation made public is that of
Mr. Troughton, mathematical instrument
maker; it differs from Chandler's tubular
pendulum, in having- but two tubes of
brass, which afford the ascending com-
pensatioiiSjVvhile the descending' ones are
performed by five wires of steel. The
order of brass and steel is the same as in
Chandler's pendulum ; but all the steel
wires pass downwards through the inter-
nal brass tube. The last pair of wires
connect the whole with the bob by a
short cylindrical piece of brass, to which
the bob is suspended by its centre.

Mr. Troughton made this pendulum
in July, 1804, and published the first
account of it in December same year,
in Nicholson's Philosophical Journal : we
believe he knew nothing of the priority
of Chandler's tubular pendulum to his,
and that, in thinking and declaring him-
self the first inventor of tubular pendu-
lums, he only fell into an error common
to many other ingenious men on similar
occasions; and this error is the more
excusable, as, at the time Chandler made
his pendulum, there were no periodical
works in existence, which professedly re-
corded the improvements of arts and ma-
nufactures, and artists were in general
more careful to conceal their discoveries,
than to acquire reputation by making
them public.

Before concluding the enumeration of
various sorts of pendulums, one suggest-
ed by Mr. Troughton should be noticed,
which seems worthy of trial. He pro-
poses that its rod should be made of bak-
ed potter's earth, of the same cornposi.
tion of Wedge wood's thermometer, and
furnished with a metallic cap, by which it
should be sustained by the knife-edge
suspension, which the celebrated Ber-
thoud affirms has less friction than the
xprmg suspension

The chief advantages which tubular
pendulums have over those of the grid-
iron construction are, that they admit of
being much lighter above the bob, with
eqral strength; that they experience less
resistance from the air in their vibrations;
'.hat they are less liable to those

shakes and irregular motions in then-
expansions which the others experience:
on the other nand, as the outside tube
alone in them comes in contact with the
air through which it passes in its vibra-
tions, the inner tubes can receive much
less of its influence as to temperature
which arises from this motion, and which
Cummings has shewn to be of considera-
ble consequence. In Troughton's pen-
dulum the great difference of the masses
of matter between the ascending and de-
scending parts must be another source of
error, as the small wires of which the.
latter consist will indubitably much soon-
er experience the influence of a change
t>t temperature in the air, than the more
bulky substance of the tubes. In this lat-
ter respect Chandler's tubular pendulum
seems superior to Troughton's,all its parts
being much more nearly of the same mag-
nitude.

More accurate comparative trials be-
tween these gridiron and tubular com-*
pensating pendulums, than any which
have yet been made, seem, however, ne-
cessary to determine the superiority of
either ; and the preference which many
are now inclined to give the tubular con-
struction seems more to arise from the
greater neatness of its appearance, than
from any sufficient experience of its high-
er merit.

That it may be superior is very possi-
ble: we only aver that this has not been
yet proved. But if equal apertures were
made at both sides of tubular pendu-
lums, through ail the tubes, it would ob-
viate the chief objection to them, by ad-
mitting the air to act on all their parts at
once.

Jn the year 1803, the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts gave a premium
of 20 guineas to Mr. Massey, of Hornley,
in Staffordshire* for a new striking part
of a clock ; the principal difference in
which from the common movement was,
that a pendulum about nine inches long-,
and which therefore vibrated pretty near-
ly half seconds, was used to regulate tlu
interval of tune between the strokes, in-
stead of the common fly wheel. Tin
other parts of tiie mechanism were also
of a simpler construction than those of
the striking parts of the clocks in com
mon use.

Mr. Prior, of Nessfield, in Yorkshire,
also obtained a premium i'rom the above-
mentioned society, in the same year, of
30 guineas, for another contrivance for
the striking part of a clock; of which tin-
advantage consisted in the .simplicity ol

CLOCK.

its structure, and the precision of its per-
formance, and which therefore possessed
considerable merit as a piece of mechan-
ism ; but neither of those inventions be-
ing1 of any service to the great object of
lioroiogical machinery, namely, the pre-
cise and accurate measurement of time,
we have thought a farther description of
them needless here.

Clocks being considered in this point
of view, as they doubtlessly should be,
no great estimation can be attached at
present to those clocks on the continent,
which were formerly so famous, whose
chief object seems to have been to set a
number of puppets in motion at stated
times. Of these the clocks of Stras-
burgh and of Lyons were the most noted.
In the former a cock claps his wings,
and proclaims the hour ; and puppets,
intended to represent an angel, the Vir-
gin, and the Holy Spirit, appear : the an-
gel opens a door, and salutes the virgin,
and the Holy Spirit descends on her. In
the clock of Lyons two horsemen en-
counter, and beat the hour on each
other ; a door opens, and there appears
on the theatre the image of the Virgin,
with that of Jesus Christ in her arms;
the Magi, with tneir retinue, marching
in order, and presenting their gifts ;
two trumpeters sounding all the while,
to proclaim the procession. Clocks with
chimes are of the same nature with those
described.

In nearly the same rank with the fore-
going must be classed the clocks made
to register the motions of the heavenly
bodies- they can be only considered as
objects of curiosity, since in point of
utility, in noting the position of the
heavenly bodies, the common nautical al-
manacs are so superior, as to render it
in some degree ridiculous to compare
them together. The clock of the royal
palace at Hampton Court is one of the
most noted of those which have move-
ments of this nature ; but other consider-
ations render this clock an object of
great interest. According to Dr. Dei-ham,
it is the oldest English clock extant, hav-
ing been constructed in the year 1540, in
the reign of Henry V11I. It shews the
time of the day, and the motion of the
sun and of the moon through all the de-
grees of the zodiac, together, with the
day of the month, the moon's southing,
and other matters. These motions are
the more deserving attention, as, at the
time the clock was made, Copernicus,
then living, had not published his book
" On the Revolutions of the Celestial

Orbs." And besides this, the pendulum
was not applied as a regulator of clocks
for nearly a century afterwards.

A fe\v clocks have been constructed
with a view directly contrary to those
described, in which simplicity of parts
was as much studied as great variety
of movements were in the others. Of
the clocks of this simple structure, none
have as yet exceeded that contrived by
the celebrated Dr. Franklin .- it shows
the hours, minutes, and seconds, and yet
consists of but three wheels, and two pi-
nions. The lowest wheel contains 160
teeth, and goes round once in four hours;
it carries the hand on its axle, which
points out both the hours and the mi-
nutes, as will be described ; and it turns
a pallet above it of ten leaves, on the
same axis with which is a wheel of 120
teeth, that gives motion to a pallet of
eiglu leaves. The second hand is annex-
ed to the same axis with this latter pallet,
as also the swing wheel, which carries 30
teeth, that gives motion to the pallets
of an anchor escapement, and to its pen-
dulum that vibrates seconds. The dial of
this clock is of a singular formation. The
external circle on k contains 240 divi-
sions, numbered from 1 to 6J, in four
successive notations. This circle shews
the minutes : within it the hours are
arranged in four concentric circles, or
in a volute of four revolutions, along
four radii, which form right angles
with each other. By this arrange-
ment, while the point of the hand shews
the minute, its side exhibits the hour ;
or, more strictly speaWng, shews that
the hour is one of three ; but so that it
will hardly ever happen that any doubt
will remain of which it may be, as there
are four hours difference between the
figures next to each other on the same
radial line. A small circle is placed
above the great one, and divided into 60
parts for the seconds. This clock was
wound up by a line going over a pulley
and ratchet on the axis of the great
wheel, by which the weight was drawn
up in the same manner as in the common
wooden clocks. Many of these clocks
have been made, which are found to mea-
sure time exceedingly well.

The small imperfection in this clock,
of its leaving the uncertainty mentioned
as to which of three hours it denotes,
though so easily corrected by the judg-
ment, has given rise to some ingenious
contrivances to obviate it.

That of Mr. Ferguson is best known,
in \vhir.h the hours were engraved on the

CLOCK.

face of the lower great-wheel ; the
seconds on that of the upper or swing-
wheel ; and the minutes were shown in
a fixed dial, outside all, through holes
cut, in which certain small portions of
the other two moveable dials were ex-
hibited; the minute hand was attached
to the axle of the second great wheel,
which contained 120 teeth, as well as the
first great wheel ; the swing wheel had
90 teeth, the axis of the second great
wheel carries a pinion of 10 leaves, and
that of the swing wheel a pinion of 6
leaves. But this clock had several im-
perfections, from which Dr. Franklin's
clock is free. The smallness of the teeth
of the swing wheel caused the pendulum
to describe smaller arcs than it should
do; the weight of the flattering, on
which the seconds were engraved, load-
ed the axis of the swing wheel, so as
to cause much friction in this part,
which should be as free from it as
possible, and there was a considerable
difficulty in adjusting the hour plate
so as to correspond with the minute
hand.

Another very ingenious contrivance for
the same purpose has been made in a
clock, on Dr. Franklin's principle, in the
possession of Mr. Patoureaux, clock-
maker, Wardour-street, to which the
tubular pendulum, on Chandler's plan,
before mentioned, is annexed. To the
axis of the great wheel of this clock
two concentric plates are annexed, the
external one of which has a groove cut
through it, along the line of a volute of
four revolutions. This groove forms a
trough, in which a metal ball is placed,
part of which is seen through its ex-
cavations. As the plate and groove turn
round, the ball rolls along the volute,
still approaching nearer the centre as it
proceeds ; and when at last it arrives
at the centre, it falls into another trough,
by which it is again conveyed to the ex-
ternal part of the volute; the hours are
engraved between the revolutions of the
volute, and the minutes are marked on
an external fixed circle, to which an in-
dex, annexed to the volute plate, points.
We have not been able to discover who
is the author of this ingenious invention.
Jt is certainly a superior method to Fer-
guson's ; the moveable dial being in it
annexed to the axle of least motion,
where of course its weight is of least con-
sequence ; and the adjustment for the
hours and minutes being performed in it
at the same time. This clock is formed

VOT.. in.

with a dead beat escapement, and is in-
tended for a regulator.

The description of the parts of an
eight day clock, moved by weights, in-
serted a little farther on, with refer-
ence to the annexed plate, may serve,
with a little addition; to give an idea
of the mechanism of a clock moved by
a main spring.

The spring, by which a clock is moved,
consists of along flat plate of steel coiled
up in a spiral form ; it is inclosed in a
cylindrical box, to which its external ex-
tremity is attached, while its internal end
is connected to a fixed axis, round
which the spring-box revolves. As the
strength of the spring is greater the
more it is coiled up by the turning round
the box, its action would be unequal in
impelling the work of the clock ; and to
remedy this inconvenience the fusee
wheel has been contrived. The fusee
consists of a conical barrel, round which
an heliacal groove is cut, that receives a
chain or catgut, previously wound round
the spring box, by which, as it is turned
round, it coils up the spring ; the groove
receives the chain first near the base of
the cone, and, as the barrel revolves,
gradually brings it nearer the axis ; by
this means, the stronger the spring is
coiled up, the shorter is the lever by
which it acts on the work; and as it
gradually uncoils and becomes weaker,
on the contrary,1 the lever of action be-
comes longer.

If instead of the barrel, in figure 2,
on which the catgut from the weight is
coiled, the fusee wheel described be
supposed to be substituted, and the
spiral spring, and its barrel and chain,
to be added, a good idea will be ob-
tained of a spring-clock ; as all the rest
of the work may be the same as in the
figure.

Spring-clocks are generally used in
chambers, in places where weight-moved
clocks would take up too much room.
They are often so constructed, that their
frames do not hide any part of the
work, and are then inclosed with glass
covers, so that all their movements may
be seen ; as they are designed for orna-
ment as well as use, very elegant and
expensive decorations are frequently
added to them.

The invention of moving time-pieces
by springs first gave rise to portable
time-pieces, or watches, for which see
the articles CHRONOMETER and HORO-
LOGY.

Spring clocks are sometimes called
He

CLOCK.

portable clocks, but improperly, for no
pendulum clocks can be made so as to be
portable : for this purpose the balance
wheel and its spring must be substituted
for the pendulum, and it is this point that
makes the grand distinction between
clocks and watches, or chronometers :
the properties of the balance spring, as a
regulating power, will be found in the ar-
ticles before mentioned.

Clocks for astronomical purposes, in
which extraordinary nicety in the exact
measurement of time is necessary, have
(besides the compensation pendulums,
detached escapements with jewelled pal-
lets, and other improvements before
mentioned) a contrivance added to con-
tinue their movement, while the weight
is winding up, which was first used in
spring-moved chronometers. For this
purpose, a second large -r ratchet wheel
is added on the same arbor with that
which admits the clock to be wound up,
but with teeth pointing the contrary
way ; a strong spring, usually the great-
est portion of a circle, connects this
large ratchet vi heel with the great wheel
of the clock, which is on the same axis
with it; one end of this spring being
attached to the great wheel, and the
other end to the large ratchet; and a
catch proceeds from the inner face of the
back plate to the teeth of the ratchet,
which prevents its mqving back when
the clock is winding up, and serves as a
support for the reaction of the maintain-
ing spring. When the clock is left to the
operation of the weight, the small ratchet
turns round the large one, and contracts
or coils up the spring, till it has strength
sufficient to impel the great wheel and
train ; amd when the action of the weight
is suspended, as in winding up, the
spring, freed from the contracting power
of the weight, expands itself, and forces
round the great wheel; its action in the
contrary direction on the great ratchet
being prevented by the catch before
mentioned. Le Roy is generally sup-
posed to have invented this improvement
for his chronometers ; but as he has
proved that the fusee is unnecessary
when a detached escapement is used,
the same purpose might be answered, in
a much simpler manner, in those time-
pieces which are moved by springs, by
turning round the arbor to which the in-
ternal end of the main-spring is attached,
in order to wind it up, instead of turning
round the spring-box in the customary
manner.

Though Le Roy was the first who con-
trived the spring impeller, to prevent

loss of time in winding up, Huygens was
in reality the person with whom the idea
originated ; for he contrived a method, by
which the weight of his clock should
continue to act on the train while it was
drawing up, the weight in his clock hav-
ing been made to draw up in a similar
manner to that used in the common
wooden clocks, instead of being wound
up as in our metallic clocks. Patou-
reaux's clock has this contrivance.

The following description of an eight
day clock, with reference to the plate,
will, it is hoped, sufficiently shew its
construction; and the plate will, it is
presumed, assist in elucidating the va-
rious parts of clocks, and improvements,
before described.

Plate Clock-work, is a representation
of an ordinary eight day clock, with re-
peating, striking mechanism.

Fig. 1, Clock-work, is an elevation of
the clock, sideways, shewing the pendu-
lum and going part ; the striking move-
ments are omitted in this figure, to avoid
confusion ; fig. 2, is a projection of the
wheel-work of both going and striking
part ; and fig. 3, is the dial-work, or me-
chanism immediately under the dial,
(which is removed,) and is that part
which puts the striking train in motion
every hour. A clock of this kind con-
tains two independent trains of wheel-
work, each with its separate first mover ;
one is constantly going, to indicate the
time by the hands on the dial-plate ; the
other is put in motion every hour, and
strikes a bell, to tell the hour at a dis-
tance, a. figures 1 and 2, is the barrel
of the going part; it has a catgut band b
wound round it, suspending the weight
which keeps the clock going; 96 is a
wheel, (called the first or great wheel,)
of that number of teeth upon the end of
the barrel, turning a pinion of eight
leaves on an arbor which carries the mi-
nute hand. 64 is a wheel of 64 teeth on
the same arbor, (called the center wheel,)
turning the wheel 60 by a pinion of eight
leaves on its arbor ; this last wheel gives
motion to the pinion of eight, on the ar-
bor of the swing wheel 30, of 30 teeth ;
d, h, are the pallets of the escapement
fixed on an arbor e, fig. 1, going through
the back plate of the clock's frame, and
carrying a long lever /; this lever has a
small pin projecting from its lower end,
going into an oblong hole, made in the
rod B of the pendulum. The pendulum
consists of an inflexible metallic rod, sus-
pended by a very slender piece of steel-
spring, D, from a brass bar E, screwed
to the frame of the clock, haying a

CLOCK.

weight or bob at its lower end, in the
present case 39.125 inches from the sus-
pension D ; when this pendulum is mov-
ed from the perpendicular line in either
direction, and suffered to fall back again,
it swings nearly as much beyond the per-
pendicular on the contrary side, and then
returns ; this it will continue to do for
some time, and each of these vibrations
will be performed in one second of time,
when the pendulum is of the above
length. This is the measurer of the time ;
and the office of the clock is only to indi-
cate the number of vibrations it has
made, and give it a small impulse each
time, to keep it going, as the resistance of
the air and elasticity of the spring D
would otherwise in a few hours cause it
to stop. By the action of the weight ap-
plied to the cord b, (which is called the
maintaining power,) the wheels are all
turned round, and if the pallets d h were
removed, the spring wheel 30 would re-
volve with great velocity in the direction
from 30 to d, until the weight reached
the ground : the teeth of these pallets
are so made, that one of them always en-
gages the wheel, and prevents its turning
more than half a tooth at a time. In the
drawing the pallet d has the nearest
tooth of the wheel resting on it, and the
pendulum is on the side k of the perpen-
dicular ; when it returns it moves the
pallet d, so as to allow the tooth of the
wheel to slip off ; but in the mean time
the pallet A has interposed its point in the
way of the tooth next it, and stops the
wheel till the next vibration or second ;
the distance between the two pallets d h
is so adjusted, that only half a tooth of
the wheel escapes at each vibration ; and
as the wheel has 30 teeth, it will revolve,
once in 60 vibrations of one second each,
or one minute ; consequently a hand on
the arbor of this wheel will indicate se-
conds on the dial-plate F, a circle divid-
ed into 60 ; the pinion of eight on its ar-
bor is turned by a wheel of 60, which
consequently will turn once in seven
turns and a half of the other, or in seven
minutes 30 seconds, or one-eighth of an
hour ; its pinion of eight is moved by a
wheel of 64, or eight times itself, which
will turn in one-eighth part of the time ;
this will be an hour ; the arbor of this
wheel therefore carries the minute hand
of the clock. The great wheel of 96, be-
ing 12 times the number of the pinion
eight, will turn once in 12 hours, and the
barrel a with it. The' gut goes round 16
times, so that the clock will go eight
days. The hour hand of the clock is
turned by the wheel-work shewn in fig.

3 : on the end of the arbor of the centre
wheel 64 a tube is fitted, so as to go
round with it by friction ; this carries
the minute hand, but if the clock should
require correction, the hand may be
slipped round without moving the
wheels ; this tube has a pinion of 40
teeth on its lower end, indicated by a
dotted circle ; this turns another wheel
40, of 40 teeth, which has a pinion of six
teeth on its arbor, turning a wheel 72, of
72 teeth ; the two wheels 40 will both
turn in an hour ; and 72 in 12 hours : the
arbor of this wheel has the hour-hund,
and is a tube going over the arbor of the
minute-hand, so that the two hands are
concentric. The barrel a is fitted to an
arbor coming through the plate of the
clock, and is filed square, to put on a key
to wind up the weight ; the great wheel
96 is not fixed fast to the arbor, but has
a click on ii, which takes the teeth of a
ratchet wheel cut upon the barrel ; so
that the barrel may be turned in the di-
rection to wind up the weight without the
wheel : but by the descent of the weight,
the wheels will be turned by the click.

Having now described the going part
of the clock,itremainstodescribe the me-
chanism by which the hours are strwck.
78, fig. 2, is' a great wheel of 78 teeth, with
a barrel and click the same as 96 ; it
turns a pinion of eight ; 64 is a wheel on
the same arbor turning a pinion of eight on
the arbor of the wheel o of 48 ; th^s turns
another pinion of eight, and wheel p of
48, which turns a pinion of six, on the
same arbor with a thin vane of metal,
which is railed the fly, and by the resist-
ance of the air to its motion regulates
the velocity of the wheels. The wheel
64 has eight pins projecting from it; these
raise the tail n of the hammer, as they
revolve ; the hammer is returned vio-
lently, when the pins leave its tail, by a
spring m pressing on the end of a pin put
through its arlor, and strikes the bell,
(the hamirer and bell are behind the
plate, and therefore unseen,) / is a short
spring, which the other end of the pin
through the arbor touches just before
the hammer strikes the bell ; its use is to
lift the hammer o^T the bell the instant it
has struck, that it may not stop the
sound. The eighth pin in the wheel 64
must pass by the hammer tail 78 times
in striking tlie 12 hours, 1 -f- 2 -f- 3 -j- 4^
+ 54-6 + 7 + 8 + _9 + 10 + 11 -h
12 = 78, and as its pinion has eight
leaves, each leaf of the pinion answers to a
pin in the wheel 64 ; now as the great
wheel has 78 teeth, it will turn once in
12 hours, the same as tlie ether great

CLOCK.

wheel 96. In the wheel 64 eight of its
teeth correspond to one of the pins for
the hammer, and as the pinion of the
wheel o has eight teeth, it (wheel o) will
turn once for each stroke of the hammer.
By the remaining wheels, one, o, multiply-
ing six, antl the other,/*, eight times, the
fly will turn 6 X 8 = 48 times for one
turn of o = one stroke of the hammer.
Fig. 3. is also mechanism relating to the
striking part: r is a small pinion of one
tooth, called the gathering pallet, on the
arbor of wheel o, and consequently turns
once for each stroke of the hammer ; s is
a segment of a large wheel which it turns
(called the rack) ; t is an arm attached
to the rack, whose end rests against a
spiral plate V, called the snail; this is
fixed on the tubular arbor before describ-
ed of the hour hand and wheel 72, and
turns round with it once in 12 hours.
The plate is divided into 12 equal angles,
30 degrees each, and as it turns, each of
these answers to an hour ; the circular
arcs forming the circumference of the
snail are struck from the centre of the
arbor between each division with a differ-
ent radius, decreasing a certain quantity
each time in the order of the hours. The
circular part of the rack -s is cut into
teeth, each of which is of such a length,
that every step upon the snail shall an-
swer to one of them ; to is a spring press-
ing against the tail of the rack, and act-
ing to throw the arm of the rack against
the snail; g is a click, called the hawk's
bill, taking into the teeth of the rack,
and holding it up in opposition to the
spring w : i k is a three-armed detent,
called the warning piece ; the arm k is
bent at its end, and passes through a
hole in the front plate of the clock, so as
to catch a pin placed in one of the arms
of the wheel p, fig. 2, and which de-
scribes the dotted circle in fig. 3 ; the
other arm i stands so as to fall in the
way of a pin in the wheel 40. In the
present position of the figure, the wheels
of the striking train are in motion, and
would continue turning until the gather-
ing pallet r, whicli turns once at each
stroke of the hammer, by its tooth lifts
the rack s in opposition to the spring w
one tooth each turn ; and the hawk's bill
rr retains the rack, until a pin in the end
of the rack is brought in the way of the
lever of the gathering pallet r, and stops
the wheels from turning any further: it is
in this position with the rack wound up,
till its pin arrests^he tail r. that we shall
begin to describe the operation of the
striking of the clock. The wheel 40, as

we have said before, turns once in an
hour, and consequently at the expiration
of every hour the pin in it takes the end
?', and moves it towards the spring near
it ; this depresses the end k until it falls
in the circle of the motion of the pin in
the wheel p, fig. 2, at the same time the
short tail depresses one end of the hawk's
bill, and raises the other g-, so as to clear
the teeth of the rack s ; immediately the
spring to throws the rack hack, until the
end of its tail t touches that part of the
snail which is nearest it ; when the rack
falls back, the pin in it is moved clear of
the gathering pallet r, and the wheels set
at liberty; the maintaining power puts
them in motion ; but in a very short time
before the hammer has struck, the pin in
the wheel p falls against the end of k, and
stops the whole ; this operation happens
a few minutes before the clock strikes,
and this noise of the wheels turning is
called the warning : when the hour is ex-
pired, the wheel 40 has turned so far as
to allow the end of i to slip over its pin,
as in the figure ; the small spring press-
ing against it raises the end fc so as to be
within the circle ot the pin in the wheel
/>, fig. 2 : every obstacle is now removed,
and the wheels run on the pinion ; the
wheel 64 raises the hammer r, and it
strikes on the bell, the gathering pallet r
takes up the rack, a tooth at each turn,
the hawk's bill g retaining it until the
pin in the rack comes under the gather-
ing pallet r, and stops the motion of the
whole machine, till the pin in the wheel
40 at the next hour takes the warning
piece i k, and repeats the operation we
have now described. As the gathering
pallet turns once for each blow of the
hammer, and its tooth gathers up one
tooth of the rack at each turn, it is evi-
dent the number of teeth the rack is al-
lowed to fall back limits the number of
strokes the hammer will make. This is
done by the rack's tail t resting on the
snail ; each step of the snail answers to
one tooth of the rack, and one stroke of
the hammer ; at each hour a fresh step
of the snail is turned to the tail of the
rack, and by this means the number of
strokes is made to increase one at each
time from one to twelve.

CiocK-worfc, in the limited meaning of
the word used by artists, denotes only
the machinery employed in the striking
part of a clock ; that used for giving mo-
tion to the hands being called watch-
work. In its more extensive sense, it is
generally understood to mean any combi-
nation of wheel-work, for any purpose,,

CLO

CLU

whose parts do not much exceed in size
those of a common clock.

CLOSE, in heraldry. When any bird is
drawn in a coat of arms with iits wings
close down about it, (i. e. not displayed,)
and in a standing posture, they blazon it
by this word close ; but if it be flying,
they call it volant.

CLOSE hauled, in marine language, the
arrangement of a ship's sails, when she
endeavours to make progress in the near-
est direction possible towards that point
of the compass from which the wind
blows ; in this manner of sailing the keel
of square rigged vessels commonly makes
an angle of six points with the line of the
wind, but cutters, luggers, and other
fore and aft rigged vessels, will sail much
nearer.

CLOSE quarters, strong barriers of
wood stretching across a merchant ship,
in several places : they are used as a
place of retreat when a ship is boarded
by her adversary, and are therefore fit-
ted with loop-holes, through which to
fire the small arms. An English merchant
ship of 16 guns, properly fitted with close
^ quarters, has defeated the united efforts
'of three French privateers who boarded
her.

CLOTH, a woven fabric, composed of
wool, flax, cotton, or hemp, either sepa-
rate or mixed. Woollen cloths consist
chiefly of broad cloths, kerseymeres,
flannels, shalloons, serges, baizes, &c. :
the two former are the most valuable,
and will be chiefly noticed. The wool
should be of the best quality, and in the
best state of preparation, before it is sent
to the loom. Formerly Spanish wool
bore a very high price with us, but of
late years we have, by obtaining some of
the sheep of that country, established a
breed, which is found to yield a finer
sample than even the pure Marino. The
justly celebrated Dr. Parry, of Bath, has
sedulously attended to this point, and has
produced fleeces, which, in regard to
fineness and length of staple, are obvious,
ly superior, being as six to five when
compared with the Spanish. Hence our
woollens have latterly been less indebted
to importation, and we may fairly expect
to see our flocks become doubly valu-
able. The cloths are woven in a common
loom, and the superfluous nap is taken
off by a very ingenious contrivance, called
the shearer, not unlike the blade of a
scythe, which, with a regular motion
given by various machinery, completely
levels the surface, and fits it for the last
process : this is done by the teazel, a
kind of thistle, which grows in hedge

rows, but is in many parts cultivated fox
the supply of manufactories. The heads
of the teazles are inserted into grooves in
long battens, so as to appear, and to act-,
like brushes ; these brushes extend the
whole breadth of the cloth, and are set all
around a cylinder, which brushes the
cloth by its rotatory motion, rendering
its surface beautifully glossy and smooth.
The appearance is, however, greatly im-
proved by pressing. The coarser kinds
of cloth undergo little finishing. Linens
are made of bleached flax ; they are
chiefly manufactured in Ireland and Scot-
land, both which countries derive essen-
tial advantages from their manufactures,
especially as they produce the raw ma-
tei'ial. Cotton must be imported in its
raw state ; a circumstance which gives
employ to many thousands of our poor ;
though the muslins, calicoes, &c. are ge-
nerally made from the thread formed by
machinery. Hemp makes SAIL-CLOTH,
CANVAS, &c. which see. The manufacto-
ries for woollens and linens in the United
Kingdoms are supposed to give bread to
near a million of persons. The importa-
tion of foreign cloths is therefore very
wisely prohibited. For further particu-
lars, see WEAVING.

CLOUD, a visible aggregate of minute
drops of water, suspended in the atmo-
sphere. It is concluded, from numerous
observations, that the particles of which
a cloud consists are always more or less
electrified. The hypothesis, which as-
sumes the existence of vesicular vapour,
and makes the particles of clouds to be
hollow spheres, which unite, and descend
in rain when ruptured, however sanction-
ed by the authority of several eminent
philosophers, does not seem necessary to
the science of meteorology in its present
state ; it being evident that the buoyan-
cy of the particles is not more perfect
than it ought to be, if we regard them as
mere drops of water. In fact, they al-
ways descend, and the water is elevated
again only by being converted into invi-
sible vapour. See METEOROLOGY.

CLUE, in marine language, is the
lower corners of square sails ; but the
aftmost only of stay-sails, &.c. the other
lower corner being called the tack.

CLUES of a hammock, the combination
of small lines by which it is suspended.

CLUPEA, the herring, in natural histo-
ry, a genus of fishes of the order Abdo-
minales. Generic character : head com-
pressed; mouth compressed and inter-
nally rough ; jaws unequal ; tongue short
•and rough ; with inverted teeth ; side-
plates of the apper mandible serrated ;

CLL

CLU

gill-membrane eight-rayed ; gills setace-
ous internally; abdomen sharp, and gene-
rally serrated ; body compressed, elon-
gated, and covered with moderate scales;
ventral fins often nine-rayed ; tail forked.
There are fifteen species, according to
Gmelin, and according to Shaw, nineteen;
of which the most deserving of notice
are, C. harengus, or the common herring.
This fish does not appear to have been
known by the Greeks and Romans, or: at
least to have attracted from them any
particular attention. In modern times it
constitutes an important article of com-
merce, and the herring fishery has for
ages been considered as an important
field for national industry, and a source
of national wealth. Even in the twelfth
century the Dutch were much occupied
in taking herrings, and preserved a sort
of monopoly on this subject for several
ages. The art of pickling them was
discovered in Flanders. The Dutch are
uncommonly partial to the pickled her-
ring, and on the arrival of the first ves-
sel in port, laden with this article, resort
to it wfth all the ardour of impatience and
competition. This first vessel also is enti-
tled to a considerable premium. The
term lierring is derived from a German
word, meaning an army, and well express-
es t!»e immense multitude of this fish,
which, after wintering within the arctic
seas, where insect food abounds fully to
the extent of their immense demands,
direct their course in spring towards the
south. In April they are generally seen
off the isles of Shetland, and their pro-
gress is marked by the flocks of birds
which accompany them, and prey upon
them. There are, in general, several
columns of this mighty host, extending
about five miles in length arid three in
breadth, and reflecting, by their advance
to the very surface of the water, that
pearly lustre and lively variety of colour,
which, in clear weather, give to the spec-
tacle extraordinary interest. From the
isles of Shetland they divide to the east-
ern and western shores of Great Britain ;
in the former case passing through the
English Channel, after visiting every gulf
and creek within its limits; in the latter,
visiting the coast of Ireland, and furnish-
ing the inhabitants with a cheap and valu-
able article of subsistence. Some natu-
ralists, however, have doubted of the ex-
tensive migrations ascribed to the her-
ring, and consider the time allotted for
its accomplishment as totally inadequate
for this purpose. They suppose them in
winter to shelter themselves in the pro-

found retreats of the ocean, and amidst
its soft and muddy bottoms, near those
very shores, in their approach to which
they are first seen in spring. The food
of the herring consists chiefly of sea in-
sects and worms, and itself becomes food»
not only, as before intimated, to various
birds, who follow their track with unceas-
ing vigilance and voracity, but to innu-
merable fishes also : of these the whale
is its most formidable enemy, and thins
its columns with the most destructive and
consuming havock.

The C. pilchardus, or the pilchard.
This is somewhat smaller than the last ;
its scales also are larger; and its body is
thicker, rounder, and more oily. It
abounds in the summer months on the
coast of Cornwall ; and in the port of St.
Ives nearly two hundred and fifty mil-
lions were once enclosed by a single
draught. The supply of this fish being
very frequently far superior to any regu-
lar demand, it has in some cases been em-
ployed merely as manure, for which it is
found admirably applicable.

C. alosa, or shad. This is considerably
like the pilchard; but is larger and thin-
ner ; distinguishable particularly by the '
scales upon its belly, which form a sharp
keel along it. It is found in the Medi-
terranean and in the Baltic, and ascends
rivers periodically to deposit its spawn,
which it always does in the deepest
parts. The longer it continues in fresh
water, the fatter it becomes; it feeds
principally on insects and young fish, and
can live but a tew moments after being
taken from the water. It is little valued
for the table, being coarse and tasteless.
It is found in the rivers of England, and
principally in the Severn.

C.sprattus, or sprat, resembles the her-
ring, and might easily be taken for its
young. There are, however, decided
differences. During the winter months
sprats are caught in abundance in the
Thames, and are a verv valuable resource
for the poor inhabitants of the metropo-
lis. In some places they are pickled
with great advantage ; in others they are
cured like the herring, and are scarcely
less relished.

C. encrasicolus, or anchovy. This was
well known to the ancients, who prepar-
ed from it a sauce in high estimation. Its
bones are soluble in boiling water, winch
renders it of great convenience in condi-
inental preparations.

CLU SI A, in botany ; so called in me-
mory of Carolus Clusius, an eminent
French botanist; a genus of the Poly-

CNI

COA

gamia Monoecia class and order. Natu-
ral order of Guttiferx, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character : male, calyx four or six-
leaved ; leaflets opposite, imbricate ; co-
rolla four or six-petalled : stamina nume-
rous: female, calyx and corolla as in the
males ; nectary formed by the coalition
of the anthers, including the germ ; cap-
sule five-celled, five-valved, stuffed with
pulp. There are six species. These
are trees abounding in a tenacious, gluti-
nous juice. C. rosea, rose-coloured bal-
sam tree, is from twenty to thirty feet in
height, a native of the Bahama islands,
St. Domingo, and other American islands,
between the tropics, on rocks, and often
on the trunks and limbs of trees, occa-
sioned by birds scattering or voiding the
seeds, which, being glutinous like those
of misletoe, take root in the same man-
ner ; but the roots, not finding sufficient
nutriment, spread on the surface of the
tree till they find a decayed hole or other
lodgment, where there is some portion
of soil; the fertility of this being exhaust-
ed, a root is discharged from the hole
till it reaches the ground, though at forty
feet distance ; here again it fixes itself,
and becomes a larger tree.

CLUYTIA, in botany, in memory of
Augerius Clutius, professor of botany at
Leyden, a genus of the Dioecia Gynan-
dria class and order. Natural order of
Tricoccze. Euphorbia, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character : calyx five-leaved ; corolla
five-petalled : female, styles three ; cap-
sule three-celled; seed one. There are
ten species, all natives of hot climates.

CLYPEOLA, in botany, a genus of the
Tetradynaraia Siliculosa class and order.
Natural order of Siliquosae. Crucifene,
Jussieu. Essential character : silicic emar-
ginate, or biculate, compressed, flat, de-
ciduous. There are three species. These
are low plants, that have little beauty,
and are preserved chiefly in botanic gar-
dens.

CLYSTER is a liquid remedy, to be in-
jected chiefly at the anus into the larger
intestines.

CNEORUM, in botany, a genus of the
Triandria Monogynia class and order. Na-
tuarl order of Tricoccae. Terebintacex,
Jussieu. Essential character: calyx three-
toothed ; petals three, equal ; berry tri-
coccous. There is but one species ; viz.
C. tricoccum, willow-wail, or sponge
olive ; native of the south of France, Italy,
and Spain, in hot, dry, barren, and rocky
soils. .

CNICUS, in botany, a genus of the Sy n-
jenesia Polygamia JEqualis class and or-

der. Natural order of Composite Capita-
tae. Cinarocephalx, Jussieu. Essential
character : calyx ovate, imbricate with
branch-thorny scales, guarded with brac-
tes ; corollets equal. There are nine spe-
cies.

CO ACH, aconvenient carriage suspend-
ed on four or more springs, and moving
on four wheels, originally intended for
the conveyance of persons in the upper
circles of society, but now become so
common as to stand in our streets plying
for fares. The first coach ever seen in
England was introduced by the Earl of
Arundel from the continent, in the year
1581 ; since that time their numbers have
been gradually increasing, insomuch that
every family of easy fortune keeps its
carriage ; while no less than 1100 hack-
ney coaches are registered within the
bills of mortality. See COACHES, hackney.
Such coaches as are the property of pri-
vate persons, or are kept for hire, pay a
high duty, and produce a total of several
hundreds of thousands to the Exchequer.
The fashions, with regard to form and or-
nament of coaches and other carriages
for pleasure, are perpetually changing,
and many varieties ai*e occasionally pre-
sented. The principal kinds now in use
are, the close coach ; the landau, which
can lower its roof and part of its sides,
like the head of a phaeton ; the barouche,
or open summer carriage, made on the
lightest construction ; the chariot, which
is intended only for two or three persons ;
the landaulet, or chariot whose head en-
folds back ; the phaeton and caravan,
which have only a head and no windows,
with a leather apron rising from the foot-
board to the waist : all of these run upon:
four wheels. Of the two-wheeled ve-
hicles, we have the curricle, drawn by
two horses, each bearing on a narrow
saddle the end of a sliding bar or yoke,
that upholds a central pole. These can-
not be considered as very safe machines,
but are admirably calculated for ease of
draught ; and their bodies being upon
four pliant springs, must generally have
a very easy motion. The gig, chaise, or
whiskey, has but one horse, which moves
between a pair of shafts, borne nearly ho-
rizontal by means of a leather sling pas-
sing over the saddle tree ; when another
horse precedes, so as to drive one be-
fore the other, the machine is called a
tandem ; a pun upon that word, which in
Latin signifies "at length." Those
chaises which do not go upon springs,
and are in other respects calculated for
the use of the poorer classes, pay less

COA

duty, but must b'ear the words " taxed
cart" in some conspicuous part, and in
letters of not less than an inch in depth :
their cost must also be under 12/. Our
stage coaches, which travel to every part
of the kingdom, are, beyond compare,
superior to those of any other nation,
both for speed of travelling and accom-
modation. The legislature has wisely
restricted the numbers of inside and of
outside passengers. On the whole, they
perform their journies at the rate of 5
miles in the hour during summer, and
about 4£ during the winter season.
.Taken on an average, the rates are from
4e^d. to 6d. per mile for inside passengers;
though in cases of competition they have
gone so low as 2d. The mail-coaches,
which carry the letters to and from the
General Post-Office, are of a very strong
build, and usually run 8, or even 9, miles
within the hour ; they are limited as to
the time in which each stage is to be per-
formed ; and the guard makes remarks as
to the condition of the cattle, the per-
formance of their duty, the accidental
delays and deviations, upon a printed
way-bill delivered with the bags at the
post-office; he notes every matter re-
lating to time, according to his time-piece,
which is always adjusted before he takes
leave. The mail-coaches are restricted
to four inside and two outside passen-
gers, besides the coachman and the
guard, both of whom wear the king's
livery; and the royal arms are borne
upon the centre pannels of the coach.
All the mail-coaches pass in review at
Buckingham-house, and St. James's, on
his Majesty's birth-day ; the guards and
drivers dressed in their new uniforms,
and the horses decked -with ribbons.
Every mail-coach, so soon as it arrives in
town, is sent to the overseer and con-
tractor at Mill-Bank, Westminster, where
it is strictly examined, the screws tight-
ened, axles greased, and every precaution
taken to guard against accident.

COACHES, hackney- commissioners are
appointed to license and regulate them :
the proprietor of each coach to pay 10s.
per week. Each coach is to be numbered
on both sides, the altering of which incurs
a penalty of 51. The same penalty is in-
curred by driving or letting to hire a
coach without a license. Mourning-
coaches and hearses are within the act.
The horses in hackney-coaches must be
fourteen hands high. Coachmen com-
pelled to go in the day ten miles ; after
dark but two miles and a half on turn-
pike-roads; to have check-strings, under
the penalty of 5L

The ?ate for a mile and a quarter, or
less, is 1*. from that to two, Is. &d. and
for each additional half mile entered up-
on, 6d.

In reckoning by time, three quarters
of an hour, or less, is Is. between that and
an hour Is. 6d. one hour and twenty mi •
nutes 2s. and for each additional twenty
minutes entered upon, 6d. For a day of
twelve hours, 14v. 6d. and 6d. for each
twenty minutes over.

A coachman refusing to go, or exact-
ing more than his fare, forfeits from 10s.
to 3/. By misbehaviour or impudence
he incurs the same penalty, and subjects
his license to be revoked, and himself to
be committed to the house of correction.
Persons refusing to pay the fare, or de-
facing the coach, may be compelled by
a justice to make satisfaction. The
penalties may be recovered before the
aldermen of the city, and justices of the
peace, as well as before the commission-
ers. 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 24, 26, and 32, Geo.
III.

COACHKS, stage : every person keeping
any public stage-coach shall pay, annual-
ly, 5s. for a license ; and keeping any
such public stage without a license, he
shall forfeit for every time such carriage
is used 101. No person licensed shall, by
virtue of one license, keep more than one
carriage, on r*enalty of 101. Every li-
censed Stage-coach shall pay 2^d. for eve-
ry mile it travels. Every person licensed
shall paint, on the outside pannel of each
door, his Christian and surname, with the
name of the place from whence he sets out*
and to which he is going, on pain of 10/.
Should he discontinue such carriage, he
shall give seven days previous notice, and
have such notice indorsed upon his li-
cense, and from thenceforth shall be no
longer chargeable.

Drivers of stage-coaches are not to ad-
mit more than one outside passenger on
the box, and four on the roof of the
coach, on the penalty of 5s. for each pas-
senger at every turnpike-gate.

COADUNATJE, in botany, the 52d or-
der of plants in Linnaeus' " Fragments of
a Natural Method," so named from the
general appearance of the seed-vesseJs,
which are numerous, and, being slightly
attached below, form altogether a single
fruit, in the shape of a sphere or cone,
the parts of which are easily separated
from one another.

COAGULATION, is the property of
certain liquids becoming solid without
evaporation, and without their assuming
a crystalline form. The hardening of the
white of an egg, by mere heat, is an ex-

COAL.

ample of this kind : the characteristic
properties of the substance are complete-
ly changed. In their first state it is solu-
ble in water ; but coagulated, water, nei-
ther hot nor cold, has any power over it.
See ALBUMEN.

COAL, in mineralogy, a most impor-
tant genus of mineral inflammables, in
which is included the carbonaceous and
curbono-bituminous fossils. In the excel-
lent dictionary by Messrs. A. and C. Ai-
kin, this genus is divided into the families
of brown coal, black coal, and mineral
carbon. The first, or brown coal, is im-
perfectly bituminous, of a brown colour
und vegetable texture : of this there are
four species. The second, or black coal,
is perfectly bituminous, of a black co-
lour, and contains three species, of which
one is the slate coal, which is soft and ea-
sily frangible: specific gravity 1.2 to 1.24 :
it contains from 57 to 64 of carbon, and
from 33 to 4.3 of bitumen, beiiiir a mix-
ture of maltha and asphalt, and from 3 to
6 of earth and oxide of iron. Most of our
common coals belong to this species, and
from the different phenomena which they
exhibit during combustion, a great num-
ber of varieties are known in the market.
The canal coal is of this family. See AM-
PEHTES. The third sort, or mineral car-
bon, is destitute of bitumen, and consists
of charcoal, with various proportions of
earth and iron. There are three species,
of which one is plumbago, or black lead.
See BLACK-LEAD.

Coal, of all the substances which natu-
ralists have arranged -in the class of in-
flammables, is by far the most service-
able to mankind. Nature has dealt it to
us with an unsparing hand, and has pro-
vided mines of this mineral which seem
to defy the power of man to exhaust.
England and France, where the different
branches of manufacture are carried to a
greater extent and perfection than in the
other countries of Europe, are, at the
same time, the most abundantly provid-
ed with mines of coal, as if nature was de-
termined to second the exertions of an
industrious people by giving them the
best possible assistance. Coal is always
found in masses, sometimes in a heap,
most frequently in beds ; but rarely in
veins. The beds :\re disposed within the
eart . with different degrees of inclina-
tion, and in almost every possible direc-
tion. These beds of coal are supposed
by iiiost naturalists to be a deposit form-
ed by the waters of the ocean, which
once covered our continent. They are
never found single, but generally dispos-
ed in strata one above another, The

VOL. III.

beds of coal are separated by layers of
stone, which arc nearly of the same na-
ture in all coal mines. Those which
form the side and the top of a stratum of
coal are a sort of friable slate, containing
more or less of bitumen, while the bot-
tom is generally more compacted, and
mixed with micaceous sand. It is remark-
able that this slaty kind of stone, which
so generally accompanies the coal, should
frequently contain the impressions of
plants, and particularly ferns, some of
which are met with in the finest state of
preservation.

In Scotland, the mines of Carron, of
Edinburgh, and of Glasgow, are chiefly
distinguished for their produce. There
are three beds of coal at Carron, the first
of which is about 40 fathoms below the
surface, the second 50, and the third 55.
Only two beds are worked at Edinburgh,
and one of them is remarkable for its situ-
ation, the opening of the mine being
hardly forty fathoms from the sea, and
only three fathoms above high water
mark. The mines of Glasgow stretch
from the north-east to the south-west,
and occupy a considerable space of
ground. Here are several beds of coal,
placed on each other, and continued
nearly from the surface of the ground
to the depth of three hundred feet ;
but of these beds there are only two or
three that are worth the trouble of work-
ing.

The principal mines of this useful mi-
neral in England are those of Newcastle
and Whitehaven. The town of Newcas
tie absolutely stands on beds of coals,
which extend to a considerable distance
round the place. There are seven or
eight beds of this mineral, . one above the
other, and all inclined in a south-east di-
rection ; the lowest is a hundred fathoms
from the surface of the earth. But the
mines near Whitehaven will afford the
best idea of these wonderful places. We
learn that these coal mines are perhaps
*K~ most extraordinary of any in the

the

known world. The principal entrance
for men and horses is by an opening at
the bottom of a hill, through a long pas-
sage hewn in the rock, which, by a steep
descent, leads down to the lowest vein of
coal. The greatest part of this descent
is through spacious galleries, which con-
tinually intersect each other ; all the
coal being cut away, except large pillars,
which, in deep parts of the mine, are
three yards high, and uvelve squure at
the base. The mines are sunk to the
depth of a hundred and tin rty fathoms,
and are extended under the sea to places,
F f

COAL.

where, above them, the water is of suffi-
cient depth for ships of large burthen.
These are the deepest coal mines that
have hitherto been wrought, and per-
haps the miners have not in any other
part of the globe penetrated to so great a
depth below the surface of the sea ; the
very deep mines in Hungary, Peru, and
elsewhere, being situated in mountain-
ous countries, where the surface of the
earth is elevated to a great height above
the level of the ocean. There are here
three strata of coal, which lie at a consi-
derable distance one above another ; the
communication between each is preserv-
ed by pits. The vein is not always regu-
larly continued in the same inclined plane,
but js sometimes interrupted by hard
rocks, and in those places the earth seems
to have sunk downwards from the sur-
face, while the part adjoining hath retain-
ed its ancient situation. These breaks
the miners call dykes, and when they
meet with one of them, they first ob-
serve whether the direction of the strata
is higher or lower than in the part where
they have been working. If, to employ
their own terms, it is cast down, they
sink a pit to it with little trouble ; but
should it, on the contrary, be cast up to
any considerable height, they are fre-
quently obliged to carry a long level
through the rock, with much expense and
difficulty, till they again arrive at the vein
of coal.

In these deep and extensive works,
the greatest care is requisite to keep
them continually ventilated with perpe-
tual currents of fresh air, to expel the
damps and other noxious exhalations,
and supply the miners with a sufficiency
of that vital fluid. In the deserted works,
large quantities of these damps are fre-
quently collected, and often remain for
a long time without doing any mischief:
but when, by some accident, they are set
on fire, they produce dreadful and de-
structive explosions, and burst out of the
pits with great impetuosity, like the,fiery
eruptions from burning mountains. The
coal in these mines hath several times
been set on fire by the fulminating damp,
and continued burning many months, until
large streams of water were conducted
into the mines, and suffered to fill those
parts where the coal was on fire. Several
collieries have been entirely destroyed by
such fires : of these there are instances
near Newcastle, and in other parts of Eng-
land, and in the shire of Fife in Scotland ;
in some of which places the fire has conti-
nued burning for ages. To prevent as

much as possible the collieries from being
filled with these pernicious damps, it has
been found necessary to search for those
crevices in the coal whence they issue, and
then confine them within a narrow space,
from which they are afterwards conducted
through longtubes into the open air,where,
being set on fire, they consume in pei-pe-
tual flames, as they continually arise out of
the earth. The late Mr. Spedding, who
was the great engineer of those works,
having observedthatthefulminatingdamp
could only be kindled by flame, and was
not liable to be set on fire by red hot iron,
nor by the sparks produced by the colli-
sion of flint and steel, invented a machine,,
in which, while a steel wheel is turned
round with a very rapid motion, flints are
applied to it, and, by the abundance of
fiery sparks emitted, the miners are ena-
bled to carry on their work in places
where the flame of a lamp or candle would
occasion dreadful explosions. Without
some intervention of this sort, the work-
ing of these mines would long ago have
been impracticable, so greatly are they
annoyed by these inflammable damps.
Fewer mines, however, have been ruined
by fire than by inundations ; and here that
noble piece of mechanism the steam-en-
gine displays its beneficial effects. When
the four engines belonging to this colliery
are all at work, they discharge 1228 gal-
lons of water every minute at thirteen
strokes; and, after the same rate, 1,768,320
gallons every twenty-four hours.

The road from the Whitehaven coal-
mines to the water side is mostly on a
gentle descent, and provided with an iron
railway : this, by removing much of the
friction, exceedingly facilitates the carri-
age of the coals to the shipping, which
are laid alongside of the quay to receive
them. When the waggons are loaded,
they run without any assistance on the
railway till they arrive at the quay, where
the bottom striking out, the waggon dis-
charges its contents into a large flue, or,
as the workmen term it, a hurry, through
which it rattles into the hold of the vessel
with a noise like thunder. A man is
placed in each waggon to guide it, who
checks its progress, if necessary, by
pressing down one of the wheels with a
piece of wood provided for the purpose.
When the waggons are unloaded, they are
carried round by a turn-frame, and drawn
back to the pits by a single horse along
another road. The coal trade is supposed
to maintain nearly 15,000 mariners, andto
employ about 2000 coal-heavers, who are
allowed a fixed sum on clearing each ship,

COA

according- to her tonnage. These are sup-
posed to be the hardest working1 men in
the kingdom: they often earn six, seven,
or eight shillings in the day ; of which at
least one-third, or perhaps one half, is
spent in porter. By a late act coals are
permitted to be landed at Paddington, in
the parish of Mary -le -bone, not, however,
exceeding a specified quantity within the
year. These coals come by the canals
from the inland counties, generally in
large masses and free from coal-dusi. A
patent has been granted within these few
years for the formation of coal-dust into
balls, which are compacted by the admix-
ture of soft clay, tanner's bark, and various
other materials, all of which tend to swell
the mass and form a tolerable fuel : it
brings much rubbish to an excellent use.
A patent was also granted about twenty
years back to LordDundonald for making
tar from coal. This tar has been found to
answer many useful purposes, being an
admirable coating for wood or other work
exposed to the weather; but, on account
of its being peculiarly subtile, must be
carefully kept aw ay from articles of pro-
vision, to which it communicates a most
unpleasant, bit- minous flavour. The cin-
ders and ashes from coal are in much
estimation, as a manure for particular'
soils, and are highly obnoxious to worms.
Tl^ty arc likewise employed in the mak-
ing of bricks.

There are different opinions among
geologists respecting- the origin of coal.
Some suppose this combustible substance
to be produced by the decomposition of
the soft parts of the immense quantity of
organized bodies, of which we find almost
every where the solid remains. But un-
fortunately this conjecture, which ap-
pears so natural, is liable to several strong
objections. One is, the presence of vege-
tables scarcely decomposed, which are
often met with in the middle of beds of
coal. The others, the want of direct ex-
periments to prove that organized bodies
give out bitumen during their decompo-
sition. Without stopping to discussthese
points, we shall merely give the general
conclusions of naturalists, as they are
mentioned by Brogniart. 1. That coal
was formed, either at the same time, or
after the existence of organized bodies.

2. That this mineral when first formed was
liquid, and of a great degree of purity.

3. That the cause which produces this
deposit is several times renewed in the
same place, and nearly under the same
circumstances. 4. That the cause, what-

ever it may be, is nearly the same over
all the earth, since the beds of coal al-
ways exhibit nearly the same phenomena
in their structure and accidental circum-
stances. 5. That these beds have not
been deposited b} any violent revolu-
tion ; but, on the contrary, in the most
tranquil manner; since the organized
bodies that are found in them are often
entire, and the leaves of vegetables im-
pressed in the slate which covers the
coals are hardly ever bruised or other-
wise deranged.

COASTING, that part of navigation
where the places assigned are not far dis-
tant, so that a ship mav sail in Sight of
land, or within soundings, betv/een.them.
In this there is only required a good
knowledge of the land, the use of the
compass and lead, or sounding line.

COASTING pilot, one who, by experi-
ence, has became sufficiently acquainted
with the nature of any particular coast,
to conduct a ship or fleet from one part
of it to another.

COAT of arms, in heraldry, a surcoat
reaching to the waist, open at the sides,
and ornamented with armorial bearings,
worn by the ancient knights in times of
war, or at tournaments, over their ar-
mour, being the principal characteristic
by which they were distinguished from
one another, the face being covered with
the helmet. During the period of five
centuries after the conquest, the varia-
tion m in the mode of exhibiting coat -ar-
mour was very trivial.

The Norman in the field, being closely
invested in armour which exactly fitted
his shape, threw over it an ornamented
surcoat without sleeves, at first loose ;
but during the successive reigns of the
three first Edwards, it was confined to
the body in narrow folds. After that the
mixed armour (composed of mail and
plates) became common, and the steel
boddice was gilt, and otherwise orna-
mented. This armour did not, however,
long continue in fashion, but was suc-
ceeded by tabards of arms larger than
the original surcoat, and made of the
richest silk stuffs, sumptuously embroi-
dered; which afterwards became the
dress worn by the nobility and gentry,till
the commencement of the sixteenth cen-
tury: since that time they have been con-
tinued only as the state dress of the offi-
cers of arms.

COATS, in a ship, are pieces of tarred
canvas put about the masts at the part-
ners, to keep out water. They are also

COB

used at the rudder's head, and about the
pumps at the decks, that no water may
go downjthere.

COATING, in chemistry, is used prin-
cipally for the purpose of defending1 cer-
tain vessels from the immediate action of
fire ; thus, glass retorts, and the inside
of some furnaces, are coated with various
compositions.

COATING, in electricity, means the
covering of electric bodies with conduc-
tors, or \he 'utter with the former, or,
lastly, electrics with other electi'ics.
Electrics are coated with conductors
for the purpose of communicating to,
or removing from their surfaces, the
electric fluid in an easy and expeditious
manner ; otherwise an electric body,
on account of its non-conducting pro-
perty, cannot be electrified or deprived
of the electric fluid, without touching
almost every point of ts surface with an
electrified or other body. This coating
generally consists of tin-foil, sheet-lead,
gi't-paper, gold-leaf, silver-leaf, or other
metallic body, either in the form of a thin
extended lamina, or in small grains, such
as brass filings and leaden shot. The
coating may be fastened to the surface of
the electric by means of paste, glue, wax,
or other adhesive matter.

COBALT, in chemistry, a metal, when
pure, of a white colour, inclining to bluish
or steel grey. At the common tempera-
ture its specific gravity is more than 8.5.
It is attracted by the magnetic needle,
and is itself capable of polarity. For
fusion it requires nearly the same intensi-
ty of heat as cast iron. In a state of oxide,
it tinges the saline vitreous fluxes of a
deep blue colour. It is soluble in nitro-
muriatic acid, and the diluted solution
forms a blue sympathetic ink. Cobalt
occurs in nature alloyed with other me-
tals, and mineralized by oxygen, and
by arsenic acid. The white cobalt ore
is an alloy of cobalt and arsenic, with
a little sulphur, and in some specimens
a little iron, the two latter being proba-
bly accidental. One variety, analyzed by
Klaproth, gave 44 of cobalt, 55.5 of arse-
nic, and 0.5 of sulphur Its colour is tin-
white, liable, however, to tarnish, and
thus to assume a grey or reddish tinge :
its lustre is weakly shining and metallic.

The grey cobalt ore, as it has been
named, is an alloy of cobalt with arsenic
ancl )ron ; sometimes, also, ;is ba; been
affirmed, with small portions of mckel
and bismuth. Its colour is light grey,
but very liable to tarn:sh ; its lustre
weakly shining and metallic. Exposed

to the flame of the blow-pipe, it gives
an arsenical odour and smoke, but with-
out melting: to borax it gives a blue
colour, and is reduced to a metallic
globule. The native oxide of cobalt oc-
curs in a powdery form, or of various
degrees of induration, but always dull,
and earthy in its fracture, soft, and easily
broken. It is also of different colours,
from the intermixture of oxide of iron and
perhaps other metallic ox'des : whence
even species have been formed and dis-
tinguished by the names of black cobalt
ochre, brown cobaU ochre, and yellow co-
balt ochre. Of these the black appears
to be the oxide of cobalt in its purest
state. They all give a blue colour to
glass, or to borax, when fused with it by
the blow-pipe. Sometimes also they ex-
hale an arsenical odour. The last species
is that in which cobalt is mineralized by
arsenic acid, the principal variety of
which has been named peach-bloom co-
balt ore. This name it derives from its
colour, which is a beautiful red, simi-
lar to that of the peach blossom, passing,
however, into other shades of red, and
from decomposition into other colours.
The ores of cobalt are easily distinguish-
ed from all others, by their property of
communicating- to borax or to glass, when
fust:d with them, a deep blue colour ; and
by their solution in nitro-muriauc acid,
being a sympathetic ink, lines traced
with it on paper not being visible when
cold, but becoming visible on exposure
to a moderate heat.

On a large scale, cobalt is extracted
from its ores only in the state of an oxide,
without being reduced to the metallic
form, not only as this reduction is dif-
ficult, but also as the metal is not appli-
ed to any use. The ore is roasted, by which
the sulphur ancl arsenicare expelled, and
any fusible metal mixed with it is melted
out. The cobalt remains in the state of
an impure oxide, named zaflfre. The
zafTre of commerce is always mixed with
silicious earth ; hence, if exposed to a
strong heat, it vitrifies? a glass of a dark
blue colour is thus formed, named smalt,
which is used on account of its colovir in
various arts. It is from the zafTre of
commerce that the chemist obtains co-
balt ; to obtain it pure, however, is ex-
tremely difficult. The common process
js; to mix the zaffre with three times its
weight of black flux, a small quantity of
oil, and a little sea salt, and expose the
mixtiire in a crucible to a strong white
heat for some hours. A metallic button
is thus obtained, on cooling, at the bot-

COB

COC

tom of the crucible ; but the cobalt pro-
cured is generally alloyed with arsenic
and nickel, and sometimes with other
metals, particularly iron.

A number of the acids oxydise cobalt,
and combine with its oxide. The con-
centratedsulphuric acid scarcely acts on it
in the cold, but when boiled on tiie metal,
sulphurous acid gas is disengaged, and a
saline matter is obtained, which, when
lixiviated, forms a solution of sulphate of
cobalt. Nitric acid is decomposed by
cobalt, and the metal is oxydized and
dissolved. The solution is of a red colour,
and by gentle evaporation affords minute
prismatic crystals of the same colour,
which are deliquescent and decomposed
by heat. Muriatic acid does not act on
cobalt, but with the assistance of heat ;
a small portion oi the metal is then dis-
solved. The solution of muriate of co-
balt afforus a celebrated sympathetic ink.
When much diluted, if letters are traced
with it on paper, and allowed to dry,
they are invisible ; but when the paper
is exposed to a moderate heat, they ap-
pear of a lively green : they disappear
again when cold, and the experiment may
be repeated for any number of times, ta-
king care only to avoid too strong a heat,
by which they are rendered permanent.
The cause of this phenomenon has been
ascribed to the muriate of cobalt fixed
upon the paper attracting, when cold,
moisture from the atmosphere, by which
it is, as it were, dissolved, and rendered
invisible : when heated, this moisture is
evaporated, and the green colour of the
salt appears. This explanation appears
to be confirmed by the fuct, that the
characters are rendered visible by con-
fining the paper in a vessel with quick-
lime, or sulphuric acid, either of which
attracts humidity powerfully . The green
colour cannot, however, be ascribed en-
tirely to the concentration, but is owing
to the temperature ; for the solution itself
becomes green when moderately heated
in a close phial, and loses this green co-
lour as it cools ; nor is it easy to explain
bow the temperature does produce this
change of colour.

Cobalt combines with many of the me-
tals. Its alloys are generally brittle, and
none of them has been applied to any
use; nor have they been much examined.
The principal, or, indeed, almost all the
sole use of cobalt, is in communicating a
blue colour to glass, enamel, and por-
celain.

COBBING, in sea language, a punish-
ment sometimes inflicted on a Bailor : it

is performed by striking him a certain
number of blows on the breech, with a
flat piece of wood, called the cobbing-
board.

COBITIS, the loche,'m natural history, a
genus of fishes of the order Abdominales.
Generic character: eyes in the upper
part of the head ; mouth in the greater
number of species bearded ; body almost
equally thick throughout, and covered
with easily deciduous and small scales ;
tail rounded; air bladder hard or osseous.
There are five species, of which we shall
no' ice : — C. barbatula, or bearded loche.
This is an inhabitant of the streams of
Europe and Asia, and lives upon worms
and insects, which it finds on the gravel
at the bottom of the water, from which
it rarely ascends near the surface. It is
extremely prolific,and mt>st highly valued
for the table in several places in Europe,
where it is cultivated with extreme atten-
tion. It dies almost immediately on be-
ing taken from the water. To preserve
the exquisite flavour of it, it is consi-
dered by the dealers in this fish as of
great importance frequently to shake Jhe
vessel of water in which it is placed. C.
fossiiis, or yellow-brown loche. This in
habits the stagnant and muddy waters of
the midland parts of Europe, and in win-
ter completely shelters itself in mud. It is
restless before storms,qnitting its retreat,
and ranging about in various directions
near the surface. When preserved in a
vessel of water, with, some earth at the
bottom, it invariably indicates the ap-
proach of storms by peculiar agitation,
and is on this account not unf requently
kept to answer the purpose of a baro-
meter.

COCCINELLA, in natural history, a
genus of insects of the order Coleoptera.
Generic character : antennae subclavated
and truncated ; feelers with semi-corclat-
ed tip . body hemispheric, with the abdo-
men flat beneath. This genus is easily
distinguished by its hemispheric form,
having the upper parts convex, and the
lower flat. The insects of this genus are
known by the name of lady-birds. C.
septempunctata, or seven-spotted lady-
bird, is seen in every garden and field in
the summer. It proceeds from a larva
of a lengthened oval shape, with a shar-
pened tail, of a black colour, varied
with red and white specks, and of a
rough surface ; it resides on various
plants ; and changes to a short blackish,
oval crysalis, spotted with red, which
gives birth to its beautiful inmate in
the months of Mav and June. There

coc

COG

arc, according to Gmelin, nearly 200 spe-
cies, distinguished, 1. into those whose
shells are red or yellow, with black dots :
2. shells red, with yellow dots : 3. shells
red or yellow, spotted with white : 4.
shells yellow, spotted with red. They all
feed, both in their larva and complete
state, on the aphides or plant-lice, and
are very serviceable in purifying1 vege-
tables of the myriads with which they are
often infested.

COCCOCYPSELUM, in botany, a ge-
nus of the Tetrandria Monogynia class
und order. Natural order of Stellate.
Rubiaceae, Jussieu. Essential character :
calyx four-parted, superior; corolla fun-
nel-form ; berry inflated, two-celled,
many seeded. There is but one species ;
viz. C. repens, a native of Jamaica.

COCCOLITE? in mineralogy, a species
of the flint genus, of a green colour; oc-
curs in large, coarse, and small granular
distinct concretions; it is hard, scratches
glass, and gives sparks with steel ; spe-
cific gravity 3.3 ; it is infusible without
addition ; with carbonate of soda it mel's
into an olive green, vesicular, slag-gy
glass; and, with borax, into a pale-yel-
low, semi-transparent glass; its constitu-
ent parts are,

Silica 42

Alumina 15

Calcareous earth . . 13

Oxide of iron ... 8

Manganese . . . . 14

Water . 3

COCCOLOBA, in botany, a genus of
the Octaridna Trigynia class and order.
Natural order of Holoraceae. Polygonese,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx five-
parted, coloured; corolla none; berry
calycine, one seeded ; drupe. There are
fourteen species.

COCCULUS tndici/s,the name of a poi-
sonous berry, supposed to be used by
brewers in their malt liquors ; particular-
ly in porter, to give it an intoxicating qun-
lity. But as the use of it is forbidden by
the laws of the land, it would be unfair
to impute the practice of it to any re-
spectable house.

COCCUS, in natural hi story, a genus of
insects of the order Hemiptera. Generic
character : snout pectoral ; abdomen
bristled behind : wings two, upright in
the males: females wingless. There are
about fifty species ; extremely fertile and
troublesome in hot-houses and green-

houses ; the male is very active ; the fe-
male has a body nearly globular, and is
slow, inactive, and fixed to different parts
of pi ants. The most important species
is the coccus.cacti, or cochineal coccus,
celebrated for the beauty of the colour it
yields wlien properly prepared. It is a
native of Sou.h Amerca, and feeds on
the cactus opuntia. The female, or offi-
cinal cochineal insect, in its full grown or
torpid state, swells or grows to such a
size, in proportion to that of its first or
creeping state, that the legs, antennae,
and proboscis are so small, with respect
to the rest of the animal, as hardly to be
discovered, except by a good eye, or with
the assistance of a glass ; so that on a ge-
neral view it bears as great a resemblance
to a seed or berry as to an animal.

When the female cochineal insect is
arrived at its full size, it fixes to the sur-
face of the leaf, and envelopes itself in a
white cottony matter, which it is suppos-
ed to spin or draw through its proboscis,
in a continued double filament, it being
observed, that two filaments are fre-
quently seen proceeding from the tip of
the proboscis in the full grown insect.
The male is a small and rather slender
dipterous fly, about the size of a flea,
with jointed antennae, and large white
wings in proportion to the body, which
is of a red colour, with two long filaments
proceeding from the tail. It is an active,
lively animal, and is dispersed in small
numbers among the females, in the pro-
portion of one male to 15U female?.
When the female has discharged all its
eggs, it becomes a mere husk, and dies :
so that great care is taken to kill the in-
sects before that time, to prevent the
young from escaping, and thus disap-
pointing the proprietor of the beautiful
colour. The insects, when picked or
brushed off" the plants, are killed by the
fumes of heated vinegar, or by smoke,
and then dried, in which state they are
imported into Europe. It is said the
Spanish government is annually more en-
riched by the profit of the cochineal
trade, than by the produce of all its gold
mines. Cochineal is used in the large
scale by dyers, and it is the fine colour so
much esteemed in painting, known by
the name of carmine : when properly
mixed with hair-powder, it is what ladies
use as rouge.

C. ilicis, or kermes, is a species adher-
ing, in its advanced or pregnant state, to
the shoots of the quercus coccifera, un-
der the form of smooth reddish-brown
grains or balls, of the size of small peas.
The tree or shrub grows plentifully in

coc

COD

many parts of France, Spain, Greece, and
the islands of the Archipelago. The coc-
ci arc found adhering in groups of five,
six, or more, together, or pretty near
each other. Woollen cloth dyed with
kermes was called scarlet in grain ; the
animal having been popularly considered
as a grain.

A very small species of this genus is of-
ten seen, in its torpid state, on the sur-
face of different kinds of apples, particu-
larly on the golden pippin. It is not
more than the tenth of an inch in length,
and is of a long oval shape, gradually de-
creasing to a point at one end. It contains
thirty or forty oval white eggs, envelop-
ed in a silky matter.

COCHLEA, in anatomy, the third part
of the labyrinth of the ear. See ANATO-
MY.

COCHLEARIA, in botany, a genus of
the Tetradynamia Siliculosa class and or-
der. Natural order of Siliquosx, or Cru-
ciferae, Jussieu. Essential character : si-
licle emarginate, turgid, scabrous ; valves
gibbous, obtuse. There are eight spe-
cies.

COCKET, is a seal belonging to the
King-'s Custom-house, or rather a scroll
of parchment sealed and delivered by the
officers of the customs to merchants, as
a warrant that their merchandizes are
customed. It is also used for the office,
where goods, transported, were first en-
tered and paid their custom, and had a
cocket or certificate of discharge.

COCKPIT, in a man of war, a place on
the lower floor, or deck, abaft the main-
capstan, lying between the platform and
the steward's room, where are partitions
for the purser, surgeon, and his mates.

COCKSWAIN, or Coxso*, an officer
on board a man of war, who has the care
of the barge and all things belonging to
it, and must be also ready with his
crew to man the boat on all occasions ;
he sits at the stern of the boat and
steers.

COCOS, in botany, a genus of the Mo-
noecia Hexandria class and order. Natu-
ral order of Palms. Essential character :
male calyx three-parted ; corolla three-
petalled : stamens six; female calyx five-
parted; corolla three-petailed : stigmas
three ; drupe coriaceous. There are
five species, of which C. nucifera, cocoa-
nut-tree, is common almost every where
within the tropics, and is cultivated in
both Indies ; it is found in a wild state in
the Maldives and Ladrones, also in the
islands of the South Seas. The roots are
slender, simple, and Hexible : they rise
separately from the bottom of the trunk,

and spread in all directions; some run-
ning to a great depth, while others creep
almost parallel to the surface. The trees
grow to a great height ; their stems are
composed of strong fibres, like net- work,
which lie in several laminas over each
other, out of which come the branches,
or rather leaves, which grow 12 or 14
feet long. The flowers come out round
the top of the trunk of the tree in large
clusters : they are inclosed in a sheath,
and the nuts afterwards are formed in
large clusters, ten or twelve together.
The fruit is properly a drupe ; the skin is
thin and very tough, the substance under
this investing the shell is extremely fi-
brous; the shell is of a bony substance;
the kernel adheres all round the inner
wall of the shell, and the cavity is filled
with a milky liquor. Besides the liquor
in the fruit, there is a sort of wine
drawn from the tree, called toddy, and
from which is obtained a spirit called ar-
rack.

The coat of the tree is composed of
strong fibres, which are made into sail-
cloth, cordage, &c. The trunk of the
tree is used in all kinds of building;
and the leaves are wrought into mats,
baskets, and many other things, for which
osiers are employed in Europe : they
serve also as coverings to their houses.

COD. See GADUS.

CODE, a collection of the laws and con-
stitutions of the Roman Emperors, made
by order of Justinian.

The code is comprised in twelve books,,
and makes the second part of the civil,
or Roman 1-aw. There were several
other codes before the time of Justinian,
all of them collections or abridgments of
the Roman laws. The most ancient code,
or digest, was styled " Jus Papirianum,"
from the first compiler, Papirius, who
flourished about the time of the Regifu-
gium.

CODE, military, rules and regulations for
the good order and discipline of an army.
Of this description are the articles of
war.

CODIA, in botany, a genus of the Oc-
tandria D>gynia class ana order. Essen-
tial character : calyx four-leaved ; petals
four ; common receptacle involucred.
There is but one species, viz. C. monta-
na, a shrub, found in New Caledonia.

CODICIL, a schedule, or supplement
to a will, or other writing. It is used as
an addition to a testament, when any
thing is omitted which the testator
would add, explain, alter, or retract;
and is of the same nature as a testament,
except that it is without an heir or exe-

COF

cutor. So that a codicil is a less solemn
will, of one that dies either testate or in-
testate, without the appointment of an
heir; testate, when he that hath made
his codicil hath either before or after-
wards made his testament, on which that
codicil depends, or to which it refers ;
intestate, when one leaves behind him
only a codicil without a testament,
wherein he gives legacies only to be
paid by the heir at law, and not by any
heir instituted by will or testament. A
codicil, as well as a will, may be either
written, or nuncupative. Some authors
call a testament a great will ; and a codi-
cil a little one. But there is this further
difference between a codicil and a testa-
ment, that a codicil cannot contain the
institution of an heir ; and that in a codi-
cil, a man is not obliged to observe strict-
ly all vhe formalities prescribed by law
for solemn testaments.

CODON, in botany, a genus of the De-
candria Monogyma class and order.
Essential character : calyx ten-parted,
permanent ; leaflets alternately shorter ;
corolla bell-shaped, ten-cleft; nectary
ten-celled, composed of ten scales;
pericarpium two-celled, containing seve-
ral seeds. There is but one species, viz.
C. royeni.

CCECUM, in anatomy, the first of the
three large intestines, called intestina
crassa.

COEFFICIENTS, in algebra, such
numbers, or given quantities, as are put
before letters, or unknown quantities,
into which letters they are supposed
to be multiplied ; thus, in 3 a, or b ,r, or
c x x\ 3 is the co-efficient of 3 a, b of b x.
and c of c x x. When no number is
prefixed, unit is supposed to be the co-
efficient ; thus 1 is the co-efficient ot a or
of b.

CCELESTIAL globe. See GLOBE.

CCELIAC artery, that artery which is-
sues from the aorta, just below the dia-
phragm. See AXATOMT.

C(ELiAc/>asszo7z, in medicine, a kind of
flux, or diarrhoea, wherein the aliments,
either wholly changed, or only in part,
pass off' by stool.

COEMETERY, or CEMETERY, a place
set apart or consecrated for the burial
of the dead. Antiently, none were bu-
ried in churches or church-y ards : it
was even unlawful to inter in cities : in-
stead of which they had coemeteries
without the walls. These were held in
great veneration among the primitive
ohristians

COFFEA, in botany, in France, caffe,

so named from Caff'a in Africa, where it
grows abun antly ; a genus of the Pen-
tandria Mon gyn.a class and v;jder. Na-
tural order of SteilaU. Rubiaceae, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : corolla salver-
shaped; stamens upon the tube; berry
inferior, two-seeded; seeds arilled. There
are ten species, ot which C. arabica,
Eastern Coffee-tree, is seldom more than
eighteen feet high in its native country,
or more than twelve in Europe. The
main stem grows upright, and is covered
with a light brown bark; branches hori-
zontal, opposite, braclnate at every point;
leaves opposite ; when fully grown, they
are nearly five inches long, and an inch
and half broad in the middle, ovate lan-
ceolate. They generally continue three
years. The flowers are produced in
clusters at the base of the leaves, sitting
close to the branches ; they are of a pure
white, with a very grateful odour, but
of short duration ; they are succeeded by
berries which are well known, as well as
the use of them. This species of coffee
is greatly superior to the C. occidentalis,
Western Coffee-tree, which rarely ex-
ceeds six feet in height ; the corolla is
white and sweet scented ; it is a native of
Domingo, about Cape Francois, where it
flowers in December. As the Coffee-tree
is an evergreen, it makes a beautiful
appearance at every season in the stove,
and particularly when in flower, and also
when the berries are red, which is gene-
rally in the winter; as they continue
a long time in that state, there is scarcely
any plant that deserves a place more than
this.

COFFER, in fortification, a hollow
lodgment athwart a dry moat, from six
to seven feet deep, and from sixteen to
eighteen broad, the upper part being
made of pieces of timber, raised two feet
above the level of that moat, whicli little
elevation has hurdles, laden with earth,
for its covering, and serves as a parapet
with embrasures.

COFFERER of the King's household,
a principal officer in the court, next
under the Comptroller, who, in the
compting-house, and elsewhere at other
times, has a special charge and over-
sight of other officers of the house,
for their good demeanor and charge of
their offices, to all which he pays their
wages.

COFFIN, the case in which a dead
body is interred ; usually made of elm,
or oak. It consis'-s of a bottom, two
ends, and two sides ; the latter being
sawed half through, at right angles with

COF

COH

their length, so as to give a pliancy to the
boards ; whereby the shoulder bend is
made to suit the corps: the lid is after-
wards screwed down. Coffins are some-
times plain, but generally- are covered
with black serge, &c. and ornamented
with white, or yellow escutcheons and
handles. It is necessary, that, whatever
cloth is used, not only in lining and co-
vering the coffin, but in the shroud, &c.
it should be of woollen : this is done for
the benefit of our manufacturers. Per-
sons of property are sometimes cased in
lead, well soldered, and afterwards put
into richly ornamented coffins, for the
purpose of laying in state, or for being
deposited in vaults . We have, among other
ingenious inventions, patent coffins,
which effectually preclude the depreda-
tions of that abominable crew, that obtain
a livelihood by robbing cemeteries. The
security of this contrivance arises chiefly
from making the coffin so very strong, as
to resist the instruments usually employ-
ed by what are termed "Resurrection-
men," and by making the lid to fit on
with spring plugs, fitting into hitched
sockets ; so that being once closed, they
never can be severed, except by break-
ing the coffin to pieces. It is to be la-
mented, that such practices are consider-
ed to be at all necessary, under the plea
of the bodies being subjects for dissec-
tion, and considerably aiding to anatomi-
cal and pathological researches. Were all
who suffer under the sentence of the
law to be devoted to that purpose, many
good effects might arise, and the ob-
noxious resource, now referred to, be
discontinued. Our ancestors generally
used stone coffins. The nations of Asia,
Africa, and America, as well as the
Turks in general, do not use any case for
the interment of their dead It is, how-
ever, to be tcmembered, that the shroud
used by the Musselmans, both in Eu-
rope and throughout Asia, is called
" Kauffin ;" whence we may be led to
conjecture that to have been the origin
of our designation.

Coffins are by no means to be recom-
mended ; they cause a long continuance
of that fermentation which is the parent
of putrefaction, aiding the retention of
infectious diseases for many months, and
debarring the access of the surrounding
soil, whereby the noxious particles would
be absorbed and neutralized. Every coffin
ought to be filled up with quick lime,
whence the putrefaction would be accele-
rated, and the danger of infection be, at
least, lessened. The Emperor of Ger-

VOL. TIT

many, about 30 years back, prohibited
coffins, and caused quick lime to be im-
mediately used. Strange to say, such
was the offence given to his supersti-
tious and bigoted subjects, that this re-
gulation, in itself wise, and intended for
their safety, was the cause of very serious
discontents, and, to prevent insurrection,
was shortly after repealed.

COGNIZANCE, in law, has divers sig-
nifications ; sometimes it is an acknow-
ledgment of a fine, or confession of some-
thing done ; sometimes the hearing of a
matter judicially, as to take cognizance
of a cause ; and sometimes a particular
jurisdiction, as cognizance of pleas is an
authority to call a cause or plea out of
another court, which no person can do
but the King, except he can shew a
charter for it. This cognizance is a pri-
vilege granted to a city or town, to
hold pleas of all contracts, &c. within
the liberty ; and if any one is implead-
ed for such matters in the Courts
at Westminster, the Mayor, &c. of
such franchise may demand cognizance
of the plea, and that it be determined
before them.

In a military sense, it implies the in-
vestigation to which any person or ac-
tion is liable. During the suspension of
civil authority, every offence comes
under military cognizance, is subject to
military law, and may be proceeded
upon according to the summary spirit of
its regulation. The strongest instance
of military cognizance is a drum-head
court martial.

COHESION, one of the species of at-
traction, denoting that force by which the
parts of bodies stick together.

This power was first considered by Sir
Isaac Newton as one of the properties
essential to all matter, and the cause of all
that variety observed in the texture of
different terrestrial bodies. He did not,
however, absolutely determine that the
power of cohesion was an immaterial one,
but that it might possibly arise, as well as
that of gravitation, from the action of
another. His doctrine of cohesion is thus
expressed : " The particles of all hard
homogeneous bodies, which touch one
another, cohere with a great force ; to
account for which, some philosophers
have recourse to a kind of hooked atoms,
which in effect is nothing else but to
beg the thing in question. Others ima-
gine that the particles of bodies are con-
nected by rest, i. e. in effect, by nothing
at all ; and others by conspiring

COHESION.

i. e. by a relative rest among themselves.
For myself; it rather appears to me that
the particles of bodies cohere by an attrac-
tive force, whereby they tend mutually to-
ward each other; which force, in the
very point of contact, is very great ; at
little distances is less ; and at farther dis-
tances is quite insensible."

But, whatever the cause of cohesion
may be, its effects are evident and cer-
tain. The different degrees of it consti-
tute bodies of different forms and proper-
ties. Thus, Newton observes, the parti-
cles of fluids which do not cohere too
strongly, and are small enough to render
them susceptible of those agitations which
keep liquors in a fluid state, are most
easily separated and rarefied into vapour,
and make what the chemists call volatile
bodies ; being1 rarefied with an easy heat,
and again condensed with a moderate
cold. Those that have grosser particles,
and so are less susceptible of agitation,
or cohere by a stronger attraction, are
not separable without a greater degree of
heat ; and some of them not without de-
composition.

Modern chemists have agreed to con-
sider the attraction of cohesion as the in-
strument of aggregation, or the union of
similar compounds, and are careful not
to confound it with the elective attrac-
tions, though there may, in strictness, be
no difference between them. See CHE-
MISTRY.

This kind of attraction is evinced by
a variety of familiar experiments ; as, by
the union of two contiguous drops of
mercury ; by the mutual approach of two
pieces of cork floating near each other in
a basin of water ; by the adhesion of two
leaden balls, whose surfaces are scraped
and joined together with a gentle twist,
which is so considerable, that if the sur-
faces are about a quarter of an inch in
diameter, they will not be separated by
a weight of WOlb ; by the ascent of oil
or water between two glass planes, so as
to form the hyperbolic curve, when they
are made to touch on one side, and kept
separate at a small distance on the other ;
by the depression of mercury, and by the
rise of water in capillary tubes, and on
the sides of glass vessels ; also in sugar,
sponge, and all porous substances. And
where this cohesive attraction ends, a
power of repulsion begins.

It is uncertain in what proportion this
force decreases as the distance increases.
Desaguliers conjectures, from some phe-
nomena, that it decreases as the biqua-
dratic or 4th power of the distance, so

that at twice the distance it acts 16 timer
more weakly, &c.

To determine the force of cohesion,
in a variety of different substances, many
experiments have been made, and parti-
cularly by professor Muschenbroek. The
adhesion of polished planes, about two
inches in diameter, heated in boiling
water, and smeared with grease, requi-
red the following weights to separate
them.

Cold Create. Hot Grease .

Planes of Glass .
Brass .
Copper
Marble .
Silver .
Iron.

Ib.
130
ISO
200
225
150
300

Ib.
300
800
850
600
250
950

But when the brass planes were made
to adhere by other sorts of matter, thr
results were as in the following table :

oz.
With Water .... 12

Oil. ..... 18

Venice Turpentine 24
Tallow Candle . . 800
Rosin ..... 850

Pitch .... 1400

In estimating the absolute cohesion of
solid pieces of bodies, he applied weights,
to separate them according to their
length : his pieces of wood were long
square parallelopipedons, each side of
which was 26 of an inch, and they were
drawn asunder by the folio wing weights ;

Fir ........ 600

Elm ....... 950

Alder ....... 1000

Linden tree ..... 1000

Oak ....... 1150

Beech ..... . 1250

Ash ...... , 1250

He tried also wires of metal, l-10th of
a Rhinland inch in diameter : the metal?
and weights are as follow :

Ib.
Of Lead ...... 29J

Tin ...... 40£

Copper ..... 299£

Yellow brass . . .360
Silver ...... 370

Iron ...... 450

Gold ...... 500

COI

He then tried the relative cohesion, or
the force with which bodies resist an ac-
tion applied to them in a direction per-
pendicular to their length. For this pur-
pose he fixed pieces of wood by one end
into a square hole in a metal plate, and
hung weights towards the other end till
they broke at the hole : the weights and
distances from the hole are exhibited in
'-he following table :

Pine . .
Fir . .

Distance.

inc.

. . 9* .
. 9

Weight.

02.

. 36^
. 40

Beech .
Elm . .
Oak . .
Alder.

. . 7 .
. . 9 .

. . s* :

• . 9i .

. 56|
. 44
. 48
. 48

See his " Elem. Nat. Philos."

COIF, the badge of a sergeant at law,
who is called sergeant of the coif, from
the lawn-coif they wear under their caps
when they are created sergeants.

COIL, in naval affairs, the manner in
which all ropes are disposed aboard ships,
for the conveniency of stowage. Coiling
is a sort of serpentine winding the ropes,
by which they occupy a small space, and
are not liable to be entangled among one
another in working the sails. The small
ropes are frequently coiled by hand, and
hung up, to prevent them from being en-
tangled among one another, in traversing,
contracting, or extending sails.

COIN. Among the impediments to
commerce, the greatest, undoubtedly, is
the charge of conveyance from place to
place. This is the great obstacle, which
limits the exchange of commodities from
one extremity of the world to the other.
Whenever the charges of carriage arise
to such an amount as to equal the effec-
tual return in any remote market, the
motive for conveying merchandize to that
place ceases. If goods were always ex-
changed for goods, it is clear that the
conveyance, under the uncertainty of dis-
posal, would take place to a very small
distance indeed ; and the labour required
to discover the persons willing to ex-
change would greatly enhance the charge .
It would require a volume to enumerate
and describe the expedients, moral as well
as mechanical, by which these difficulties
are in part subdued, and still more to de-
duce their origin and general effects. One
of the chief of these expedients consists in
4he use of some article of merchandize as
•''"> medium of exchange, which shall be

acceptable to every man, and will there*
fore be received and held by the seller of
any commodity, until he shall meet vrith
another individual, who he knows will
again take it for the article he wants.

In the island of^ladagascar, it is said,
that the exchangeable value of goods is
reckoned in hatchets, bullocks, and slaves;
these commodities being universally ven-
dible, and for that reason every where re-
ceived. Smith affirms, that nails answer
the same purpose in some parts of Creat
Britain. These, and other instances, may
serve to shew how a preferable med'um
of exchange becomes adopted ; and it
will without difficulty be seen, that the
scarcest and least destructible metals
must have at length become the univer-
sal substitutes : for their value does not
depend on their figure ; they may be sub-
divided and joined again without loss ;
they receive no injury by keeping ; and
the labour of conveying them from place
to place forms a less part of their value
than of any other article.

The first monies were mere quantities of
metals ascertained by weight, as the names
of most species s*ill indicate. The inter-
ference of government was found neces-
sary to assure the weight, and more par-
ticularly the fineness of determinate por-
tions of metal ; and this has given rise to
an opinion, that a part of the value of
coin must depend on the edict of the state
which issues it. Whether statesmen them-
selves have in reality thought this to be
the case, is little to the purpose ; but it is
certain that they have, from time to time,
yielded to the temptation of diminishing
the quantity of precious metals issued un-
der a given denomination, either by openly
deducting from the wreight, or secretly
debasing the coin. Transactions of this
kind must have operated to the loss of all
the creditors in the state : but they have
never deceived the sellers, who have al-
ways regulated their prices by their
knowledge of the real quantities of the
metal, and not by the denomination, or
the supposed weight or fineness, it might
denote. The imaginary coin, or money
of account, to be found in the mercan-
tile books of almost every commercial na-
tion, must have arisen partly from this
cause.

This diminution has taken place
throughout Europe. With us the pound
of money, which about the year 1087 con-
tained a pound weight of silver, has
continued at less than one third (or |£)
of that quantity, ever since the reign of
Elizabeth. Our neighbours, however,have

COIN.

universally exceeded us in this respect.
Thus the pound Fkmish is less than
eleven shillings, the French livre is ten
pence, and the Italian lire is less than
2$d.

The Chinese still use fine silver, which
they actually cut and weigh at every sin-
gle payment. They are said to have for-
merly possessed silver coin ; but whether
they were urged to their present prac-
tice by the uncertain variation in its value
caused by their rulers, or by the difficul-
ty of otherwise resisting the artifices of
coiners, we know not.

The metals used for coinage are, gold,
silver, and copper. According to the
exchangeable value of gold, half a grain
of this metal would purchase as much
bread as a man could eat at one meal.
This small piece of gold, if as thin as pa-
per, would not measure the tenth part of
an inch in breadth, and would therefore
be perfectly inconvenient for use. It has,
in fact, been found that the gold coin of
the weight of 32 grains (or the quarter
guinea) was too small to be conveniently
used. The same observations will kpply
to the smaller subdivisions of the shilling
of silver ; whence, upon the whole, it ap-
pears that coins of all the three metals
are required, to facilitate our commerce
of buying and selling.

Gold, silver, and copper, like every
other product of human industry, depend
for their value principally on the labour
employed in producing and bringing
them to market, and in a considerable
degree on the actual demand. As these
articles are not employed merely in the
fabrication of coins, the demand will
vary in each, according to circumstances,
which admit of no permanent ratio of ex-
change between them. xlf the state were
to coin certain pieces of known weight
and fineness out of each of these metals,
and determine that a certain number of
the silver pieces, for example, should in
all cases be equivalent to one piece of
the gold, it would naturally follow, sup-
posing the individual to pay nothing for
the coinage, that a debt might be dis-
charged with more facility to the debtor,
and consequently loss to the creditor, in
the cheapest of these two metals, when-
ever, by the fluctuation of the market,
either of them should come to represent
a larger portion of the other than the
edict of the government had determined.
This consequence of fixing the relative
value of coins would shew itself in a va-
riety of ways, which need not be enume-
rated ; because it is certain that the
dearer metal would occupy the greater

part of the circulation, while the cheaper
pieces would either be melted down, or
diminished, if their rated value were too
high, and they would be fabricated by
individuals, if it were too low, in defiance
of every public regulation which might
be adopted. If we therefore admit, from
considerations of this nature, that no go-
vernment does in reality possess the
means of fixing a ratio between two arti-
cles of commerce, intended to be applied
as the tickets of transfer, or the medi-
ums of exchange, we shall be naturally
led to the adoption of one of the metals
only, as the representative sign, while
the two others are applied merely as in-
struments of accommodation, for the con-
venient subdivision of value.

With regard to the question of pre-
ference in these three metals, experi-
ence has shewn that society is disposed
to assume the dearest ; namely, gold.
With the single standard of value the fluc-
tuations of the market price of the metal,
when compared with commodities, will
be nearly imperceptible, because they
confound themselves with the rise and
fall in the prices of all other articles to
which the standard is thus applied. If a
cheaper metal were to be adopted by
the state, and gold were left to circulate
at election of individuals, the changes of
price in this metal of high value would
operate so as to produce an uncertainty
in the amount of large sums, and greatly
disturb the general transactions of com-
merce. Merchants would therefore con-
sider the gold coin as mere bullion, and
the community would in a great measure
be deprived of its use as a coin ; as actu-
ally is the case in Holland and other
countries, where silver is the legal me-
dium. A more defective scheme was
proposed in France in a report presented
by Prieur, from a committee of the
Council of Five Hundred, of which a
very full abstract is given in the Moni-
teurs of 6 and 7 Floreal, in the year vi.
Nos. 216, 217. It is, that silver coin
should be unchangeable in weight and
denomination of value ; but that the
price of gold (also coined) should be
settled every six months by a declara-
tion from the national treasury, deduced
from the medium price of that metal
during the preceding half year. It was
rejected by the Council of Ancients. It
appears most eligible, that gold, in
pieces of determinate weight and fine-
ness, should constitute the effective coin
of the state, or legal tender of payment ;
that silver and copper should be formed
into money, for the purpose of repre-

COIN

sent'mg fractions of the smallest gold
coin ; and that the creditor or seller
should have the option to refuse all pay-
ments in these last metals, of any sum ex-
ceeding1 the smallest unity of the gold
coin.

By this distribution, though the coins
of silver and copper would, in strictness,
be subject to some fluctuations, arising
from the state of the market with regard
to ihose metals, yet the difference would
be disregarded in the discharge of ac-
counts, because it would never amount
to a sum of any importance. The only
inconvenience which offers itself under
such an arrangement is, that these sub-
ordinate coins would also be melted and
sold when the metal was dear, and they
would be fabricated, if the metal ever
happened to be so cheap as to afford an
adequate motive of profit to the illegal
coiner. The state, in its deliberations
on this subject, might determine that
the coins of silver and copper should
pass either for more or for less than the
medium market price of the metal, or
for that value precisely. It is evident
that the first of these dispositions would
afford coin, which would continually
vanish into the melting-pot, and is there-
fore altogether unadvisable. The me-
dium rate of intrinsic value would pro-
duce a similar effect, whenever the mar-
ket price was low. Whence it follows,
that the metal contained in such auxiliary
money ought to be of less value than the
gold it represents ; and, to prevent the
introduction of a similar coinage from
private manufacturers, it would be neces-
sary that the difference between the
value of the metal and that represented
by the coin should be somewhat less than
the cost of workmanship. Under these
circumstances, the public would be sup-
plied with an useful implement or ticket
of exchange, which would operate as a
pledge of value, very nearly to the
amount of its denomination, and would
be afforded cheaper from the e'xtensive
manufactories of government, than it
could possibly be made by private work-
men.

Coin, like every other utensil or tool,
is subject to wear, and will, in process of
time, be snore or less deprived of its dis-
tinctive figure, and rendered less valua-
ble by the loss of weight. When new,
it is the real pledge of measure it pre-
tends to be; but, if it be suffered to cir-
culate after its weight is considerably
diminished, it may become a desirable
object to the coiner to fabricate new

pieces apparently in the worn state, or
otherwise he may exercise his industry
in speedily reducing the new coin to
that state, for the sake of the precious
metal he may thus acquire.

If, on the contrary, the legislature
should forbid the currency of pieces
worn beyond a certain.small or moderate
loss, the consequence will be, that all
such pieces will return to the mint to
be coined ; and the charge of coinage
may become so heavy, as to absorb a con-
siderable part of the value of the whole
circulating medium in the course of a
few years.

To diminish this last inconvenience as
much as possible, it becomes necessary
to attend to the nature of the metal, as
well as the figure of the piece. Whether
the Dutch ducat, of fine gold, or the Eng-
lish guinea of 22 carats, may, under
like circumstances, be most disposed to
lose by wear, has not, we believe, been
determined ; but it seems to be general-
ly understood, that our standard gold, in
watch cases and other trinkets, is less
durable than the coarser and harder gold
allowed to be wrought in France and
Geneva. If this be true, it should seem
that there exists no motive for raising
the standard of our gold: and perhaps
the same argument may apply still more
to our silver ; and the advantage, if any,
in lowering the standard, \vithotit di-
minishing the intrinsic value, has not ye'
been shewn, with sufficient evidence to
justify the offence against established
use and public prejudice, which such t>
proceeding might afford. Admitting the
observations to be conclusive against al-
tering the standard, it would follow, that
the greater durability of coin must be
sought for in its figure.

Let us imagine a coin to possess the
figure of an equilateral triangle ; let it
be thin, in order that it may present a
large surface ; let its edges have the fi-
gure of a saw, and its faces that of a file.
Under these conditions, we should fabri-
cate one of the worst or least durable
coins that could be chosen : for the an-
gles would be easily broken and worn,
and the edges and faces would mutually
operate on each other with a degree of
rapidity, which, it may be concluded,
would very soon take away all the sharp
prominences, and greatly diminish the
weight ; on the other hand, let us sup-
pose the least possible surface, and we
shall obtain the spherical figure. The
pagoda and fanam of India are the only
coins, which we recollect, that approach

COIN.

towards this figure. Against this, it ap-
pears an objection, that if it be nearly
perfect, the impressions descriptive of
Its purity and denomination must be in-
dented, and will not therefore sufficient-
ly limit its apparent magnitude ; and if
they be prominent, it will no longer be a
sphere, but a figure presenting sharp
angular parts, with small bearings, very
liable to destruction. What then is the
figure that shall partake so much of the
plane, as to present surfaces of broad
contact or bearing, and afford the quan-
tity of angular prominence ? It is evident-
ly the cylinder : and this is the figure
most generally adopted for money. The
edge of the cylinder affords the smallest
bearing; it therefore must be very short
and flat, in order that the weight of the
piece may be disposed to rest on the base,
and not the edge.

If the whole surface of a piece of metal
were covered with figures or impressions,
it would immediately be seen whether
any part had been abraded by accident or
design. If the impressions were concave,
they might easily be renewed by the
punch or the graver ; but if they were
in relief, it would be almost impossible,
when once worn or obliterated. For this
reason the preference, in coinage, has
mostly been given to figures in relief.

It is, however, a very serious inconve-
nience, that, when the distinctive marks
ar« thus rendered prominent, the face of
the coin no longer sustains the pressure
and wear of the piece ; but the marks
themselvesare made to support the whole.
Thus, in our gold money, particularly of
the last coinage, the edge is a saw, and
the numerous minute prominences of the
face constitute a file ; the operations of
both which are felt in the rapid destruc-
tion of the piece.

To place this in a more striking light,
it may be observed, that the amount of
gold coined between the years 1762 and
1772, both inclusive, was 8,157.233^. 15s.
6d; and between 1782 and 1792, both
inclusive, was 19,675,666/. 14s. 6d ; and
between 1773 and 1777, both inclusive,
was 19,591,833/. Is. During the middle
period, last mentioned, the great coinage
of gold took place. We are aware that
other causes may have occasioned a de-
mand for coin, besides the mere wear of
the old pieces, and that the increase of
commerce and manufactures has in fact
produced such a demand ; but as this
las1" event (distinguishable by its gradual
progress) does not appear, from the num-
bers in the account, to have influenced

the coinage in any great proportion :
we shall disregard it in this present rough
statement. With this liberty, we may
proceed to remark, 1st. That as most
of the old pieces disappeared during the
middle term of time, the number of nine-
teen, or say twenty millions, must nearly
represent the whole of our gold money.
2d. That the national loss by wear in the
first period, when the gold was old and
smooth, reckoned at one half per cent,
on the sum recoined, was 3708/. per ann. ;
and in^the latter period 8943Z. per ann.
And, 3d. That the whole national stock
of gold coin, under the regulations and
figure of the last period, wears out, it is
reckoned, every eleven years. This ac-
count of the coinage is to be found in the
" Report of the Lord's committee of Se-
crecy," printed April 28, 1797.

Hence we may observe, that neither
kind of mark alone is suited fora coin in-
tended to possess durability, and at the
same time to be difficult either to imitate
or diminish. A combination of both me-
thods is necessary. If a coin be struck
with indentations, or parts depressed be-
neath the common surface, and in these
there be prominent objects or designs not
more elevated than that surface, the ge-
neral advantage, with regard to wear,
will approach towards that of the plain
surface itself; and the impression will
be at least as difficult to imitate, if not
more so, than that of a design raised to-
tally above the common surface. Few
coins have been made of this figure. The
Chinese coin, of mixed copper, called the
cash, is the most remarkable, and per-
haps the only one of extensive circulation.
The late copper coinage of pieces of one
and two pennies are of this kind.

To sum up the foregoing conclusions
in a few words, we may remark, that, 1.
The state is unable (from the natural
impracticability of things) to appoint
two distinct articles of commerce as the
circulating mediums of exchange. 2. The
measure of value, or legal tender, ought
to consist in the metal which bears the
highest price, namely, gold. 3. Coins of
silver and copper are required for smaller
fractions than the actual subdivisions of
the gold coin, but should be optiorial in
the receipt of any larger sums. 4. These
last mentioned coins ought to represent a
value in gold equal to their own quantity
of metal, at the highest (or perhaps me-
dium) market price, added to the charge
of fabrication. 5. No sufficient reason
had yet been given to shew that the stand-
ard of gold coin should be changed, to

com.

render it more durable. 6. The best neither altogether hollow, or altogether
figure of coin is a short cylinder, or flat in relief, but by combination of both

round plate. And, 7. The distinctive
marks or impressions should be made

forms, so as to leave a flat bearing face en
each side.

, Sir ISAAC NEWTON'S TABLE of the Value of foreign Coins.

SILVEE.

divts. dw. gr

The piastre, or piece of 8 reaus now 10 reaus - - . w. 1 17 12

New Seville piece of eight --. 1$14

Mexico piece of eight 1 17 10|

Pillar piece of eight Stan. 17 9

Peru piece of eight of uncertain alloy

Old ecu of France of 60 sols, Tournois w. 1 17 12

New. ecu of France 100 sols, 2 d-wt. iv. by law ... 1$ 1914$

Cnisado of Portugal of 400 reas, now 480 reas ... 2 114
Patacks, or patagons of 500 reas, now 600 reas - - -

Ducaton of Flanders, of 60 sols, or patars .... b. 4$ 20 22

Patagon, or cross dollar of 48 patars w. 12 18 1

Ducaton of Holland of 63 styvers b.3 2021

Patagon, leg dollar, or rix dollar of 50 styvers ... w. 4 18

The three guilder piece of 60 styvers 2 20 8

Guilder florin of 20 styvers 2 6 18$

The ten skelling piece of Zealand of 60 styvers - - 2 20 6

Lyon dollar of Holland of 42 styvers 44 1714

Ducatoon of Cologn If. 3 20 8

Rixdollar, or patagon of Cologn w.13 180

Rixdollar, or patagon of Bishop of Liege 12 17 22

Rixdollar of Mentz 6$ 18 8

Rixdollar of Frankfort 9 18 8

Rixdollar of the Elect. Palatine, before 1620 - - - 18 5

Rixdellar of Nuremburg 6 18 10

Rixdollar of Lunenburg - - - - 10 18 11

Rixdollar of Hanover 8 18 12

Double gulden of the Elect. Hanover 7 18 18

Doable gulden, or piece of two-thirds ----- b. 17$ 8 10

Half gulden, or piece of one-third ....... 17$ 4 5

Gulden of Zell, or piece of 16 gutz grosh - - - - w.43 11 2

Gulden of Hildesheim of 24 manen grosh, now 26 - - 40$ 1122

Rixdollar of Madgburgh 10 18 12

Gulden, or guelder 44 11 14

Old rixdollar of the Elect. Brandenburgh - ... 9 1813

Old gulden of 24 manen, grosh, now 26 43 124

Gulden or piece of two-thirds -------- 43 113

Half gulden, or piece of one-third 43 5 13

Gulden, of the Elect. Saxony, of two-thirds .... 41 11 3

Old bank dollar of Hamburgh 8 18 9

Old rixdollar of Lubec 8$ 18 16

The 4 mark piece of Denmark 21 11 13$

The 8 mark piece of Sweden Stan. 20 0

The 4 mark piece of Sweden ., - - w.58 1312

The 2 mark piece of Sweden 6 19

Old dollar of Dantzic 10$ 18 9

Old rixdollar of Thorn, near Dantzic 12 18 8$

Rixdollarsof Sigismund III. and Uladislaus IV. kings } , ~ n

ofPoland 5 1U L°

Assay

Weight

COIN,

divts. chv. gr.

Itixdollar of the late Emperor Leopold - lOf *1| 9

Hixdollar of the late Emperor Ferdinand III. - - - - 10£ 18 9

JRixdollar of Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria - - - - 10£ 18 5

Rixdollar of Bazil 7$ 18 18$

Itixdollar of Zime 13 18 1

Old ducat of Venice, stamped "DucatusVenetus" - . 23£ 14 15

The half ducat 23£ 7 7£

The new ducat, stamped 124, of 6/. 4s. de picoli ... 18 2

The half thereof 91

The crusado croisat, or St. Mark, stamped 140, of 7 livres

de Picoli 20 6

The h alf and quarter crusado, in proportion ....

Another coin of Venice - w.46 17 10

The piece of 2 jules b. 6 3 15

Ducat de Banes of Naples of 100 grains w. 3 14 0£

The half ducat 3 7 0*

The tarin, or fifth part of a ducat 3 2 19|

The carlin, or tenth part 1 9^

Escude ecu, or crown of Rome, of 10 julios - ... 20 14^

Teston, of 3 julios 1 5 21 1

Ducat of Florence and Leghorn of 10 julios .... b.8 20 3

Julios of Rome 25

Piastre ecu, or crown of Ferdinand II. Duke of Tuscany TO. I 1712

Piastre ecu, or crown of Cosmus III. 1 16 18

Croisat of Genoa of 7£ lires b.7 24 15

Ecu d'argent of 7 lires, 12 sols

Piastre ecu, or crown of Milan 1721

Philip of Milan of 7 lires 2020

Livre of Savoy of 20 sols 3 22

The 10 sols piece 1 23

Aroupee 16J 7 10

Goud gulden, or florin d'or of 28 sty vers 75 12 19

Another 48 11 0

Another 48 12 0

Assay.

Weigh'

TABLE OF GOLD COIXS 17NWOE3T.

Old Lewis d'or, the half and quarter in proportion - -
New Lewis d'or, the half and quarter in proportion - -

Old Spanish double doubloon

New Spanish double pistole, half in proportion - - -
New Seville double pistole, half and quarter in proportion
The double moeda of Portugal, new coined - ...

Ditto, as they come to England

The moeda ,

Halfmoeda

Hungary ducat

Ducats of Holland and of Bishop of Bamburgh - - •
Double ducat of the Duke of Hanover -----.

Ducat of the Duke of Hanover •

Ducats of Brandenburgh, Sweden, and Denmark - •

Ducat of Poland

Ducat of Transylvania

Sequin, Chequin, or Zeachein, of Venice

Old Italian pistole

Double pistole of Pope Urban, 1634 -------

Half pistole of Innocent II. 1685

Assay.

ca.^r

™.0 0$

0 1.

o oi

o oj

0 Oi

0 0^

0 Od

0 0^
b.l 2

1 2
1 2
1 2

w. 0 0|

Weight.

CO!

COI

TABLE OF GOLD COINS TJJfWORN.

Double pistole of Placentia

Double pistole of Genoa, 1621

DoubL pistole of Milan

Single pistole of Milan - - -

Single pistole of Savoy

Double ducat of Castile, Genoa, Portugal, Florence, -

Hungary, and Venice

Single ducats of the same places - -

Double ducats of several forms in Germany ....

Single ditto - -

Double Ducat of Genoa - -

Single ducat of Genoa, Besancon, and Zurich ...
Pistoles of Rome, Milan, Venice, Florence, Savoy, Ge.

noa, Orange, Trevon, Besancon ......

Ducat of Barbary, with Arabic letters .-..,.

Assay.

ca.gr

Weight.! Value.

dw. gr.
8 10
8 16
8 13$
4 6|
4 8$

4 11
2 5$
4 11
2 5i
4 11
2 5*

4 6
2 16J

18 17.7

9 3.8

18 4.

9 2.

18 6,5

9 3.2

16 6.7

9 3.5

COIN, laws relating to. Counterfeiting
the king's money, or bringing false mo-
ney into the realm counterfeit to the
money of England, clipping, washing,
rounding, filing, impairing, diminishing,
falsifying, scaling, lightening, edging,
colouring, gilding, making, mending, or
having in one's possession, any pun-
cheon, counter puncheon, matrix, stamp,
dye, pattern, mould, edger, or cutting
engine : all these incur the penalty of
high treason. And if any person shall
counterfeit any such kind "of gold or sil-
ver, as are not the proper coin of the
realm, but current therein by the king's
consent, he shall be guilty of high trea-
son.

If any person shall tender in pay-
ment any counterfeit coin, he shall, for
the first offence, be imprisoned six
months ; for the second offence, two
years; and for the th;rd offence shall
be guilty of felony without benefit of
clergy.

Blanching copper or other base metal,
or buying or selling the same ; and re-
ceiving or paying money at a lower rate
than its denomination doth import; and
also the offence of counterfeiting copper
half-pence and farthings ; incur the pe-
nalty of felony, but within clergy. Coun-
terfeiting coin not the proper coin of
this realm, not permitted to be current
therein, is misprision of treason. A per-
son buying or selling, or having in his
possession, clippings or filings, shall for-
feit 5001. and be branded in the cheek
with the letter R. And any person hav-
ing in his possession a coining-press, or
casting bars or ingots of silver, in imita-
tion of Spanish bars or ingots, shall for-
feit 5001.

VOL. Ill

A reward of 40/. is given for convict-
ing a counterfeiter of the gold or silver
coin ; and 101. for a counterfeiter of the
copper coin.

COINING, the art of making money,
which has hitherto been performed by
the hammer or the mill. The first ope.
rations are the mixing and melting of
the metal, because there is no species
of coin of pure gold or silver but re-
quires a quantity of alloy. See ALLOT.
For gold coin the alloy is a mixture of
silver and copper, as silver alone would
make the coin too pale, and the copper
alone would give it too high a colour.
The alloy is used for the purpose of ren-
dering the coins harder, and less liable
to wear, or to be diminished by art.
When the geld and silver are completely
melted and mixed, they are cast into
long, flat bars, nearly of the thickness of
the coin to be cast. In coining by the mill,
which has been the only method in use
for the last 250 years, the bars are taken
out of the moulds, and scraped, brushed,
flattened in a mill, and brought to the
proper thickness of the species to be
coined. The plates, thus reduced as
nearly as possible to the proper thick-
ness, are cut into round pieces, called
blanks, or planchets, with an instrument
fastened to the lower end of an arbor,
whose upper end is formed into a screw,
which, being turned by an iron handle,
turns the arbor, and lets the steel, well
sharpened in form of a punch-cutter, fall
on the plates; and thus a piece is punch-
ed out. The pieces are now to be
brought to the standard weight by filing
or rasping, and what remains of the
plate between the circles is melted
again. The pieces are next weighed in

H h

COR

COL

an accurate balance, and those that prove
too light are re-melted ; but those that
are too heavy are filed to the standard
weight. When the blanks are adjusted,
they are carried to the blanching-house,
where the blanks are brought to their
proper colour. They are next milled,
by means of a machine which consists of
two plates of steel in form of rulers, on
which the edging is engraved, half on the
one and half on the other. Being thus
edged, the impression is given them by
the mill, which is so contrived, that the
metal receives at once un impression on
each side, and becomes money as soon
as it has been examined and weighed.
The process for coining medals is nearly
the same with that of money : there is,
however, this difference, that money,
from the smallness of the relievo, re-
ceives its impression at once, whereas
medals require several strokes. The
figures of the coining-mill have been so
frequently given, that it seemed to us
needless to insert them here, especially
as a new method of coining has been in-
troduced by Messrs. Bolton and Watt,
which is shortly to be the only mode used
in this country. For this purpose build-
ings are erecting on Tower-Hill. This
machinery, invented by these able me-
chanicians, has been long used in the
manufacture of copper money; it works
the screw-presses for cutting out the
circular pieces of copper, and coins
both the edges and faces of the money
at the same time, with such superior ex-
cellence and cheapness of workmanship
as will prevent clandestine imitation.
By this machinery, four boys are capable
of striking 30,000 pieces of money in an
hour ; and the machine acts at the
same time as a register, and keeps an un-
erring account of the number of pieces
struck.

COINING, in the tin-works, is the
weighing and stamping the blocks of
tin with a lion rampant, performed by
the king's officer; the duty for every
hundred weight being four shillings.

COIX, in botany, a genus of the Mo-
noecia Triandria class and order. Na-
tural order of grasses. Essential charac-
ter : males in remote spikes ; calyx glume
two-flowered, awnless ; corolla glume
awnless; female, calyx glume two-flow-
ered ; corolla glume awnless ; style two-
parted ; seeds covered by the calyx ossi-
fied. There are three species.

COKE, a preparation of fossil coal,
whereby it is deprived of the naphtha,

bitumen, or asphaltum, it may contain, so
that, when applied to ce^:in purposes,
it may not communicate a bad flavour or
bad qualities. Coke is made in very
large ovens, principally from the refuse
or brush-coal, with which some pits
abound ; the coal in them being extreme-
ly brittle, and rarely coming away in
large pieces. The overs have vents and
mouths that are occasionally stopped, in
part, for the purpose of regulating the
heat, which in no case should be such
as to consume, but merely to char. The
ovens being closed at a proper time,
the fire is gradually extinguished, and
the coke is compacted into large masses,
requiring to be broken before they can
betaken out. In this state it will burn
with a clear and steady heat, free from
fumes, and consequently without occa-
sioning malt (which is usually dried with
coke, where coal pits are at hand) to
partake of a bituminous or smoky flavour.
Good coke should be light, rather little,
and more close than cellular ; that which
is of a deep ash colour is in general pre-
ferable: when black, or at all glossy, it
is a certain sign of the want of due pre-
paration : it ought to be equally char-
red, and in large lumps, from the size of
a quartern loaf to a bushel : the small
refuse is not profitable, and often is too
much burnt.

COLCHICUM, in botany, meadow saf-
fron, a genus of the Hexandria Trigynia
class and order. Natural order of Spatha-
ceae. Junci, Jussieo. Essential charac-
ter: spathe ; corolla six-parted, with a
rooted tube ; capsule three, connected,
inflated. There are three species. One
of them, viz. C. autumnale, has been sup-
posed by Mr. Want to be the base of the
Eau medicinale d'Hussor.

COLD. When we leave a room at
the temperature of 60°, and go into the
air in a frosty day at the temperature of
30°, we say it is cold; or when the hand
is held in water at the temperature of
100° for a few minutes, and then sudden-
ly plunged into water at the tempera-
ture of 40°, the latter is said to be cold.
This, however, is merely an expression
of the sensation excited in the body,
which depends solely on the abstraction
of its heat. This may be proved by the
following experiment. If three quanti-
ties of water are taken, the first at the
temperature of 30°, the second at the
temperature of 50°, and the third at the
temperature of 98°. Immerse the right
hand into the water at the temperature of
98°, and the left into the water at the

temperature of 30°. Let them both re-
main for a minute, and then suddenly
plunge both hands into the water at the
intermediate temperature of 50°, to the
right hand'it will feel cold, and to the
left warm : thus different sensations are
produced by the same body at the same
time, and at the same temperature. But
this depends entirely on the previous
state of the hands, and on the absorption
or abstraction of the caloric. The right,
which was placed in the water at the
temperature of 98°, absorbed caloric, be-
cause the temperature of the water is
above that of the body. This excites
the sensation of heat : but when the
same hand is placed in the water at the
temperature of 50°, it is deprived of ca-
loric, because the surrounding medium is
far below its temperature, and thus the
sensation of cold is produced. But from
the left, placed in the water at 30°, ca-
loric is abstracted, which gives the sen-
sation of cold, and the same hand placed
in the water at 59°, receives caloric, and
this entering the body, excites the sensa-
tion of heat Thus the term cold is ex-
pressive of the relative temperature of
two bodies. There have, however, been
persons who'would account for the phe-
nomena of cold by the existence of
frigorific particles, supposed to be float-
ing in the air, and by mixing with liquid
bodies convert them to solids, and there
are facts which seem to support this doc-
trine.

Nothing appears at first sight more di-
rectly contradictory to the common opi-
nion of cold being only relative, and only
a negative term implying the abstract-
tion of heat, than the facts which shew
the apparent radiation, absorption, and
reflexion of cold ; the evidence of which
stands on the skme ground as the corres-
ponding motions of heat, namely, on the
rise or fall of the thermometer, if the
rise of the liquor on the scale of a ther-
mometer, whose bulb is placed in the
focus of a mirror, be considered as a
proof of the propulsion of certain calorific
rays from a distant heated surface, and
their subsequent reflexion according to
the laws of catoptrics, the sinking of the
same thermometer liquor under similar
circumstances of position, when the sur-
face, which before was sensibly hotter
than the atmosphere, is now sensibly
colder, would seem, from a parity of rea-
soning, to indicate the propulsion and re-
flexion of frigorific rays. Nor can we
consider this question as at all determin-
ed, though an ingenious hypothesis has

advanced by M. Prevost, -which
goes a considerable way to reconcile ihe
appurent contradiction of the doctrine of
the unity of heat and cold.

It is singular, that the reflection of cold
should have been accidentally discover-
ed, and decidedly announced about the
year 1667, by the members of the Flo-
rentine Academy del Cimento, without
any further prosecution of so curious a
fact. The experiment is the following;
a mass of ice of about SOOlb. was set some
distance before a concave glass mirror,
and the bulb of a spirit thermometer put
in the focus, to try whether cold would
be reflected. Immediately the spirit of
the thermometer began to sink, and fell
several degrees. To prove that this was
not merely owing to the contiguity of the
ice, the surface of the mirror was cover-
ed with a cloth, to prevent the reflexion,
and the thermometer again rose. No
further inference is drawn from this ex-
periment, and the author of it seemed
even to doubt of the reality of the re-
flexion, and to be disposed to impute it
to some other unknown cause. This ex-
periment was repeated in a much more
accurate way by M. Pictet. The appara-
tus which he used was the same as that
before described, as employed for the
reflection of heat ; that is, two tm mir-
rors placed directly opposite each other
at some distance, in the focus of one of
which was placed the bulb of a very sen-
sible thermometer, and in the other, the
vessel intended to produce the heat or
cold. In this instance, this latter was a
mattrass full of snow : the mirrors were
separated to the distance of 10£ feet.
At the instant the mattrass was placed in
one focus, the thermometer in the oppo-
site focus began to sink, and descended
several degrees. When stationary, ni-
trous acid was poured on the snow,
which produced a cold of much greater
intensity, and the thermometer in conse-
quence immediately descended several
degrees lower. When taken out of the
focus, it again rose to the common tem-
perature.

Mr. Leslie also found, not only the
same effect in this experiment, but that
the action of a cold radiating surface upon
the tin reflector produced exactly the
same proportional effect upon the differ-
ential thermometer as the hot radiating
surface, only in the opposite direction of
the scale. The differential thermome-
ter, which is always at zero when both
bulbs are equally heated, is beatifully
calculated to shew this striking experi-

COL

ment. Thus, if the difference of
rature, between the heat-radiating sub-
stance and the atmosphere be 60 de-
grees, and if this raises the thermometer
45 degrees, the same difference between
the cold radiating substance and the atmo-
sphere will sink the thermometer 45 de-
grees, and so in proportion ; so that a
cold of 16 degrees will sink the ther-
mometer 12 degrees ; for 60 : 45 : : 16 :
12.

Great degrees of cold are produced
by mixing together those substances
which dissolve rapidly . The reason of
this will appear, by recollecting what has
been said of the absorption of caloric,
when a solid body is converted into a
fluid. Mixtures to produce artificial cold
are generally made of the neutral salts
dissolved in water ; of diluted acids and
some of the neutral salts ; and of snow or
pounded ice with some of these salts.
A great number of experiments were
made upon this subject by Mr Walker;
also by Professor Lowitz, of Peters -
burgh ; by Fourcroy and Vauquelin ; and
by Guyton. The following table exhi-
bits he results of some of these experi-
ments.

Table of freezing mixtures.

J\'Rxtures. Thermom. sinks-

Parts.
1. Muriate of am- "\

Water ... . 16J

2. Muriate of am- "1

monia ... 51

Nitre 5 Mrom 50° to 3°.

Sulphate of soda 8
Water . . . . 16J

3. Sulphate of soda 5}

Diluted sulphu- Cfrom 50* to 0°.
ric acid . . . 4 j

4. Snow 1}

Common salt 1 Cfrom 52° to 0°.

5. Sifow or pound- 3

&lSV:v.--hft»- 32°«>-*10-

7. Muriate of lime 3 ~) frQm ^o to— 50°

8. Muriate of lime 2 1 from Q0 tQ__660

10. Diluted sulpha- }

ric acid. . . 10 Cfrom— 68° t0— 91°.
Snow . . . . . 8S

When any of these substances are to
be employed as freezing mixtures, the
salts should be used fresh crystalized,
and reduced to fine powder ; and it will
perhaps be found most convenient to ob-
serve the proportions which are set dowu
in the table. Suppose it is wanted to
produce a degree of artificial cold equal
to — 50°, which is the temperature pro-
duced from 32° by the seventh freezing
mixture. The substances employed,
namely the muriate of lime and the
snow, must be previously cooled down
to the temperature of 32°, or any de-
gree below it. This may be done by
placing them separately in the third
freezing mixture, the sulphate of soda,
and diluted sulphuric acid, which re-
duces the temperature from 50° to 30°;
or in the fourth freezing mixture of
snow and common salt, which reduces
the temperature from 32® to 0°. The
materials, thus cooled down, are then to
be mixed together as quickly as possi-
ble, when, if the experiment succeed,
the temperature will fall from 32° to —
5(5°, as in the seventh freezing mixture.
The vessels which are employed for
these processes should be very thin,
and made of the best conductors of
heat. Vessels of tin plate answer the
purpose, and when acids are to be used
they may be lined with wax, which
will secure them sufficiently against
their action. They should be of no
larger dimensions than just to contain
the materials.

COLDENIA, in botany, so called in
honour of C. Golden, a curious botanist
of North America; a genus of the Te-
trandria Tetragynia class and order. Na-
tural order; Asperifolix. Borraginex,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx four-
leaved ; corolla funnel formed; styles
four ; seeds two, two-celled. There is
but a single species, viz. C. procumbens,
a» annual plant, whose branches trail on
the ground ; they extend nearly a foot
from the root, and divide into many
smaller branches. It is a native of the
East Indies, but has been cultivated here
for half a century.

COLEOPTERA, in natural history, an
order of insects, which includes all those
whose wings are guarded by a pair of
strong, horny, exterior cases or cover-
ings, under which the wings are folded
up when at rest. In common language
these insects are called beetles, though,
in reality that term is now restricted to
the Scarabaeus genus. The wing-sheaths,
or horny coverings, are sometimes called
coleoptera, but more generally elytra.

COL

This is a very extensive order, divided
into four classes.

A. antennae clavate, thicker towards
the tip : in this class there are three sub-
divisions ; viz.

a. Club lamellate ; three genera.
Lucanus Scarabaeus Synodendron.
b. Club perfoliate ; seven genera.
Byrrhus Dermestes Hydrophilus
Melyris Silpha Tetratoma

Tritoma.

c. Club solid or inflated; seven genera.

Anthrenus Bostrichus Coccinella
Curculio Hister Nitidula

Pausus

B. antennae moniliform ; of which there
are twelve genera; viz.

Attelabus Brentus Cassida

Chrysomela Erodius Horia

Meloe Mordella Opatrum

Staphylinus Tenebrio Zygia.

C. antennae filiform ; of these there are
nineteen genera.

Alurnus Apalus Bruchus

Buprestis Colopus Cantharus

Carabus Cryptocephalus Cucujus

Elater Gyrinus Hi spa

Lampyris Lytta Manticora

Necydalus Notoxus Pimelia
Ptinus.

D. antennae setaceous ; of which there
are eight genera.

Cerambyx Cucindela Dytiscus
Forficula Leptura Rhinomacer
Serropalpus Zonitis

COLE-SEED. See BRASSICA.

COLE-WORT, in gardening, a species
of brassica. See BRASSTCA.

COLIC, in medicine, a severe pain in
the lower venter, so called, because the
disorder was formerly supposed to be
seated in the colon.

COLISEUM, or COLISEUM, in ancient
architecture, an oval amphitheatre at
Rome, built by Vespasian, wherein were
statues set up, representing all the pro-
vinces of the empire : in the middle of
which stood that of Rome, holding a gold-
en apple in her hand

COL1US, the cofy, in natural history, a
genus of birds of' the order Passeres.
Generic character: bill convex above,
straight under, short and th-ck ; the up-
per mandible curved downwards ; nos-

trils small, placed at he base, and nearly
hidden by the feathers ; tongue jagged at
the tip; tail long and wedged; toes di-
vided throughout. There are four spe-
cies, three of which are found in Africa,
and the fourth in the Philippine islands.
But little is known of their manners and
habits.

COLLAR, in Roman antiquity, a sort
of chain put generally round the neck of
slaves that had ran away, after they were
taken, with an inscription round it, inti-
mating their being deserters, and requir-
ing their being restored to their proper
owners, &c.

COLLAR, in a more modern sense, an
ornament consisting of a chain of gold,
enamelled, frequently set with cyphers
or other devices, with the badge of the
order hanging at the bottom, wore by the
knights of several military orders over
their shoulders, on the mantle, and its
figure drawn round their armories.

Thus, the collar of the order of the
garter, consists of S S, with roses
enamelled red, with a garter enamelled
blue, and the George at the bottom.

COLLATERAL, in genealogy, those
relations which proceed from the same
stock, but not in the same line of as-
cendants or descendants, but being, as
it were, aside of each other. Thus
uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces, and cou-
sins, are collaterals, or in the same colla-
teral line : those in a higher degree, and
nearer the common root, represent a
kind of paternity, with regard to those
more remote.

COLLATERAL, in a legal sense, is taken
for any thing that hangeth by the side ot
another, whereto it relates; as a collate-
ral assurance is that instrument which is
made over and above the deed itself, for
the performance of covenants between
man and man . thus called, as being exter-
nal, and without the nature and essence
of the covenant.

COLLATION, in the common law, the
giving or bestowing of a benefice on a
clergyman by a bishop, who has it in his
own gift or patronage. This differ?
from presentation, in that the latter is
properly the act of a patron, offering the
clerk to the bishop, to be instituted into
a benefice, whereas the former is the act
of the bishop himself. The collator can
never confer a benefice on himself. An-
ciently, the right of presentation to all
churches was in the bishop ; and now, if
the patron neglects to present to the
church, his right returns to the bishop
by collation. If the bishop neglects to

COL

exercise his right of collation in- six
months, the archbishop may confer. If
lie neglects it for other six months, it falls
to the crown.

COLLECTOR, in electricity, is a small
appendage to the prime conductor of the
electrical machine, generally consisting
of pointed wires, affixed to that end of
the prime conductor which stands con-
tiguous to the glass globe, or cylinder,
or other electric of the machine. Its
office is to receive the electricity, whe-
ther positive or negative, from the ex-
cited electric, much more readily than
the blunt end of the prime conductor
would be able to receive it without that
appendage.

COLLEGE, a particular corporation,
company, or society of men, having cer-
tain privileges founded by the King's li-
cence.

Colleges in the universities are geneval-
ly lay corporations, although the members
of the college may be all ecclesiastical.
And in the government thereof, the
King's courts cannot interfere, where a
visitor is specially appointed.

The two Universities, in exclusion of
the King's courts, enjoy the sole juris-
diction over all civil actions and suits, ex-
cept where the right of freehold is con-
cerned; and also in criminal offences or
.misdemeanours under the degree of trea-
son, felony, or maim. Their proceedings
are in a summary way, according to the-
practice of the civil law. But they have
no jurisdiction, unless the plaintiff or de-
fendant be a scholar or servant of the
university, and resident in it at the time.
An appeal lies from the Chancellor's
court to the congregation, thence to the
convocation, from thence to the dele-
gates.

COLLEGE of Civilians, commonly called
Doctor's Commons, founded by Dr. Har-
vey, Dean of the Arches, for the profes-
sors of the civil law residing in the city
of London. The judges of the arches,
admiralty, and prerogative court, with
several other eminent civilians, common-
ly reside here. To this college belong
thirty-tour proctors, who make them-
selves parties for their clients, manage
their causes, give licenses for marriages,
&c. In the common Hall of Doctor's Com-
mons are held several courts, under the
jurisdiction of the civil law, particularly
the High Court of Admiralty, the Court
of Delegates, the Arches Court of Canter-
bury, and the Prerogative Court of
Canterbury, whose terms for sitting are
much like those at Westminster, every
one of them holding several court days,

most of them fixed and known by pre-
ceding holy clays, and the rest appointed
at the judge's pleasure.

COLLEGE of Physicians, a corporation
of physicians in London, whose number,
by charter, is not to exceed eighty. The
chief of them are called fellows, and the
next candidates, who fill up the places of
fellows as they become vacant by death,
or otherwise. Next to these are the
honorary fellows, and lastly the licenti-
ates, that is, such as being found capable
upon examination, are allowed to practise
physic.

This college has several great privileges
granted by charter and acts of parliament.
No man can practise physic in or within
seven miles of London, without license of
the College, under the penalty of 51. Also,
persons practising physic in other parts of
England are to have letters testimonial
from the president and three elects, unless
they be graduate physicians of Oxford or
Cambridge. Every memberof the College
is authorized to practise surgery in Lon-
don, or elsewhere : and that they may be
able at all times to attend their patients,
they are freed from all parish offices.

The College is governed by a president,
four censors, and twelve electors. The
censors have, by charter, power to sur-
vey, govern, and arrest all physicians, or
others, practising physic in or within se-
ven miles of London ; to fine, amerce, and
imprison them at discretion ; to search
apothecaries' shops, &c. in and about
London ; to see if their drugs, &c. be
wholesome, and the composition accord-
ing to the form prescribed by the College
in their dispensaries; and to burn, or
otherwise destroy, those that are defec-
tive or decayed, and not fit for use. They
are judges of record, and not liable to
action for what they do in their practice
but by judicial powers ; subject neverthe-
less to appeal to the College of Physicians.
By law, if any person, not expressly allow-
ed to practise, take upon him the cure of
any disease, and the patient die under his
hand, it is deemed felony in the prac-
tiser.

COLLEGE Royal of Physicians, is also a
corporation of physicians in Edinburgh,
erected by King Charles II. granting them,
by patent under the great seal, an ample
jurisdiction within this city and liberties,
commanding the courts of justice to assist
them in the execution of their orders.
These have the sole faculty of professing
physic here, and hold conferences once a
month for the improvement of medicine.
This College consists of a president, two
censors, a secretary, and the ordinary so-

COL

ciety of fellows, who, upon St. Andrew's
day, if it falls on a Thursday, if not, on the
first Thursday after, elect seven counsel-
lors, who chuse the president and the
other officers for the ensuing year. By
their charter, the president and censors
have power to convene before them all
persons that presume to practise physic
within the city of Edinburgh, or the liber-
tiesthereof, without the license of the Col-
lege ; and to fine them in five pounds
sterling. They are also impowered to vi-
sit apothecaries' shops, and examine
apothecaries themselves ; with several
other rights and privileges.

COLLEGE Sion, or the College of the
London clergy, was formerly a religious
house, next to a spittal, or hospital, and
now it is a composition of both, -viz. a col-
lege for the clergy of London, who were
incorporated in 1631, at the request of Dr.
White, under the name of the president
and fellows of Sion College ; and an hospi-
tal for ten poor men, the first within the
gates of the house, and the latter without.
This College consists of a president, two
deans, and four assistants, who are annu-
ally chosen from among the rectors and
vicars in London, subject to the visitation
of the bishop. They have one of the
finest libraries in England, built and stock-
ed by Mr. Simpson, chiefly for the clergy
of the city, without excluding other stu-
dents on certain terms ; they have also a
hall with chambers forthe students, gener-
ally filled with the ministers of the neigh-
bouring parishes.

COLLEGE, Gresham, or COLLEGE of
philosophy, a College founded by Sir Tho-
mas Gresham, who built the Royal Ex-
change, a moiety of the revenue whereof
he gave in trust to the Mayor and Com-
monalty of London, and their sucessors
for ever, and the other moiety to the Com-
pany of Mercers ; the first, to find four
able persons to read in the College, divini-
ty, astronomy, music, and geometry ; and
the last, three or more able men to read
rhetoric, civil law, and physic ; a lecture
upon each subject is to be read in term-
time, everyday, except Sundays, in Latin,
in the forenoon, and the same in English
in the afternoon : only the music lecture
is to be read alone in English.

COLLEGE of Heralds, or COLLEGE of
Jlrn.s, commonly cailed the Heralds Of-
fice, a corporation founded by charter of
King Richard III. who granted them se-
veral privileges, as, to be free from subsi-
dies, tolls, offices, &c. They had a second
charter from King1 Edward VI.; and a
house built near Doctors' Commons bv

the Earl of Derby, in the reign of King
Henry VII. was given them by the Duke
of Norfolk, in the reign of Queen Mary,
which house is now rebuilt. This College
is subordinate to the Earl Marshal of Eng-
land. They are assistants to him in his
court of chivalry; usually -held in the com-
mon hall of the College, where they sit in
their rich coats of his Majesty's arms.

COLLEGE of Heralds, in Scotland. The
principal person in the Scottish Court of
Honour, is Lyon King at Arms, who has
six heralds and six pursuivants, and a
great number of messengers at arms un-
der him, who, together, make up the
College of Heralds. The Lyon is oblig-
ed to hold two peremptory courts in the
year, at Edinburgh, on the 6th of May
and the 6th of November, and to call
officers of arms and their cautioners be-
fore him upon complaints ; and, if found
culpable upon trial, to deprive and fine
them and their cautioners. L.VOTI and
his brethren, the heralds, have power to
visit the arms of noblemen and gentle-
men, and to distinguish them with dif-
ferences, to register them in their books,
as also to inhibit such to bear arms, as by
the law of arms ought not to beur ;.bem,
under the pain of escheating to the King
the thing whereon the arms are found,
and of a hundred marks Scots to Lyon
and his brethren ; or of imprisonment
during Lyon's pleasure. The College of
Heralds are the judges of the malversa-
tion of messengers, whose business is to
execute summonses and letters of dili-
gence for civil deb^, real or personal.

COLLEGE of Cardinals, sometimes call-
ed the Sacred College, a body composed
of the three orders of Cardinals.

COLLET1A, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
Corolla campanulate, furnished with five
scale-like folds ; calyx none ; fruit three
grained. One species, found in the Bra-
zils.

COLLIERS, vessels employed to carry
coals from one port to another, principal-
ly from the northern parts of England to
the capital, and more southern parts, and
foreign markets. Their trade is known
to be an excellent nursery for seamen.

COLLTNSON1A, in botany, a genus of
the D:andria Monogynia class and order.
Leaves ovate, glabrous ; stem glabrous.
Two species, found in North America.

COLLYRIUM, in pharmacy, a topical'
remedy for disorders of the eyes.

COLOGNE earth, a substance used in
painting, much approaching to amber in
its structure, and of a deep brown. It has

COL

generally been esteemed a genuine earth,
but has been discovered to contain a
great deal of vegetable matter, and, in-
deed, is a very singular substance. It is
dug in Germany and France : the quan-
tities consumed in painting in London are
brought from Cologne, where it is found
very plentifully ; but our own kingdom
is not without it, it being found near
Birmingham, and on the Mendip-hill, in
Somersetshire ; but what has been yet
found there is not so pure or fine as that
imported from Cologne.

COLON, the second of the three large
intestines, called intestina crassa. See
ANATOMY.

C-T.OX, in grammar, a point or charac-
ter marked thus (:), shewing the preced-
ing sentence to be perfect or entire ;
only that some remark, farther illustra-
tion, or other matter connected there-
with, is subjoined. See POINTING, PERIOD,
COMMA, &c.

COLONEL, in military matters, the
commander in chief of a regiment, whe-
ther horse, foot, or dragoons.

COLONEL, lieutenant, the second officer
in a regiment, who is at the head of the
captains, and commands in the absence
of the colonel.

COLONNADE, a range of insulated
columns. See ARCHITECTURE.

COLONY. A colony is a settlement
formed by the inhabitants of any nation,
in some part of the world unoccupied
by any other civilized nation. The mo-
tives for forming them have been vari-
ous.

In colonies there is generally abund-
ance of good land; hence the necessaries
of life are usually to be had in plenty,
by any one who will take the trouble ne-
cessary to produce them; and, conse-
quently, population usually has a ten-
dency to increase with great rapidity.
The inhabitants of some parts of the
United States are said to have doubled
in fifteen years, at the time those coun-
tries were colonies of Great Britain.

The policy of the mother countries
with regard to colonies has usually been
intended to make the colonists buy the
goods of the mother country as dear as
possible, and sell their own productions
as cheaply as possible. Hence the trade
of colonies usually has been confined,
by strict commercial laws, wholly to the
mother country.

The consequence of these regulations
has probably been, that in the colonial
trade the merchants and manufacturers
have sold their goods dearer, and bought

colonial produce cheaper, than they other-
wise might have done, though even this
may be doubted ; but most certainly the
inhabitants of the colony have bo'ight
dearer, and sold cheaper, than tliey other-
wise would. The prosperity of the colo-
ny therefore has been impeded ; their
progress towards opulence has been less
rapid than it wouldhave been under other
circumstances; and' the mother country
has always had a poorer and smaller mar-
ket for her commodities than she other-
wise would have had. The profits per
cent, have been perhaps greater, but
the whole amount of profit derived from,
the colony trade has most certainly been
less.

COLORIFIC earths, in mineralogy, a
class or tribe of earths, in the arrangement
ofKirwan, described by him as strongly
staining the fingers. Of these he enume-
rates four families, viz. red, yellow, black,
and green ; the red is the reddle, of dark
cochineal red colour, or intermediate be-
tween brick and blood red, having neither
lustre nor transparency ; fracture, earthy,
sometimes conchoid*1!; fragments, 1: hard-
ness, 4 ; sp. gr. inconsiderable ; adhering
pretty strongly to the tongue -. feeling
rough ; assuming a polish from the nail ;
strongly stainingthe fingers; falling imme-
diately into powder in water, and not be«-
comingductile ; not effervescing, nor easi-
ly dissolving in acids. When heated to
redness, crackling and growing black ; at
159° the specimen melted into a dark gree-
nish yellow frothy enamel. It differs from
red ochres only by containing more argil.
The red colour proceeds from oxvgena-
tion, and the ab?ence of acid. The more
air of water is expelled by heat, the brown-
er it grows. The yellow is of an ochre
yellow colour ; as to lustre, externally
it often has some gloss, but internally
none ; it is not transparent ; fracture
earthy, often inclining to the conchoidal ;
no specific gravity ; fragments, inconsi-
derable ; adheres strongly to the tongue ;
feels smooth, or somewhat greasy ; takes
a high polish from the nail ; strongly stains
the fingers ; in water it immediately falls
to pieces with some hissing; and after-
wards to powder, without diffusing itself
through it ; does not effervesce with acids,
nor is easily soluble in them; heated to
redness it crackles, hardens, and acquires
a red colour, and gives a reddish streak.
At 156°, Mr. Kirwan melted a specimen
into a liver-brown porous porcelain mass.
This yellow earth differs from ochres on-
ly in containing a greater proportion of
argil ; the yellow colour proceeds from
the calx of iron, highly oxygenated, and

COL

probably containing both water and acid.
Those earths which contain a large pro-
portion of iron have rather an orange co-
lour. According to the analysis of M.
Sage of Paris, who has the merit of pre-
serving to his countrymen the immense
gains acquired by the Dutch from con-
verting this yellow earth into what is there
called "English red/' it contains ^0 per
cent, argil, 40 oxide of iron, 10 of water,
acidulated by sulphuric acid. The 3d fami-
ly, or black; black chalk is of a greyish
black colour; fracture imperfectly curved
slaty : fragments partly flat, partly long
splintery ; adheres slightly to the tongue,
feels smooth, assumes a polish from a
knife ;. gives a black streak, and marks
black : in water does not readily moulder,
but if taken out cracks in a short time ;
does not effervesce with acids, nor easily
dissolve in them; heated to redness, it
crackles and becomes reddish grey, and
contains somewhat vitriolic . The 4th fami-
ly, green earth, is of a greyish green co-
lour ; found generally in lumps in the ca-
vities of other stones, or externally invest-
ing them : fracture, earthy, sometimes
uneven,sometimes verging to the conchoi-
dal ; sp. gr. 2.637, sometimes feels smooth,
does not assume a polish from the knife,
nor adhere to the tongue, nor stain the
fingers, nor mark while dry, and when wet
but lightly in water, it often crumbles
after standing about half an hour ; does
not effervesce with acids, nor is easily
soluble in them; heated to redness, it
crackles and becomes of a dark reddish
cream colour ; at 147°, a specimen was
melted into a black compact glass, re-
sembling that of basalt ; which shews it
to consist of silex, argil, iron, not much
oxygenated, and oxyde of nickel, from
which the green colour is derived, be-
sides water.

COLOSSUS, a statue of enormous or
gigantic size. The most eminent of this
kind was the colossus of Rhodes, one of
the wonders of the world, a brazen statue
of Apollo, so high, that ships passed with
full sails betwixt its legs. It was the work-
manship of Chares, a disciple of Lysippus,
who spent twelve years in making it : it
was at length overthrown by an earth-
quake, B.C. 224. after having stood about
sixty-six years. Its height was a hundred
and five feet : there were few people who
could encompass its thumb, which is said
to have been a fathom in circumference,
and its nngers were larger than most sta-
tues. It was liollow, and in its cavities
were large stones employed by the artifi-

VOL. HI,

cer to counterbalance its weight, and ren-
der it steady on its pedestal.

On occasion of the damage, which the
city of Rhodes sustained by the above-
mentioned earthquake, the inhabitants
sent ambassadors to all the princes and
states of Greek origin, in order to solicit
assistance for repairing it ; and they ob-
tained large sums, particularly from the
kings of Egypt, Macedon, Syria, Pontus,
and Bythinia, which amounted to a sum
five times exceeding the damages which
they had suffered. But instead of setting
up the Colossus again, for which purpose
the greatest part of it was given, they
pretended that the oracle of Delphos
had forbidden it, and converted the mo-
ney to other uses. Accordingly the Co-
lossus lay neglected on the ground for
the space of 894 years, at the expiration
of which period, or about the year of
our Lord 653, or 672, Moawyas, the 6th
caliph or emperor of the Saracens, made
himself master of Rhodes, and afterwards
sold their statue, reduced to fragments,
to a Jewish merchant, who loaded 900
camels with the metal, so that, allowing
800 pounds weight for each load, the
brass of the Colossus, after the diminution
which it had sustained by rust, and pro-
bably by theft, amounted to 720 thousand
pounds weight. The basis that support-
ed it was of a triangular figure : its ex-
tremities were sustained by sixty pillars
of marble. There was a winding stair-
case to go up to the top of it ; from
whence one might discover Syria, and
the ships that went to Egypt, in a great
looking-glass, that was hung about the
neck of the statue. This enormous sta-
tue was not the only one that attracted
attention in the city of Rhodes. Pliny
reckons 100 other colossuses not so large,
which rose majestically in its different
quarters.

COLOUR means that property of bo-
dies which affects the sight only ; thus
the grass in the fields has a green colour,
blood has a red colour, the sky generally
appears of a blue colour, and so forth :
nor can those colours be distinguished by
any of our other senses besides the sight.
The variety of colours, as they are pre-
sented to us by the substances that sur-
round us, is immense, and from them
arises the admirable beauty of the works
of nature in the animal, in the vegetable,
and in the mineral kingdom, or, more
properly speaking, in the universe. The
science which examines and explains the
various properties of the colours of light
and of natural bodies, and wUich forms a

I i

COLOURS.

principal branch of optics, has been pro-
perly denominated chromatics. See
CHROMATICS.

COLOUR, in heraldry, the heraldic co-
lours are nine, and were anciently ex-
pressed by the word tincture ; viz. or, ar-
gent, azure, gules, sable, vert,purpure,

tenney, and sanguine; and also by pre-
cious stones and planets ; the armorial
colours are blazoned in different terms,
according to the rank and dignity of the
person whose arms are described as fol-
lows :

Colours.

For commoners by
tinctures.

For peers by pre-
cious stone?.

For emperors, kings,
and princes, by
planets.

cni

White - .--
'Rliif

Argent - - -

Pearl - - - -

Luna.

T?prl

•pnKv

Jupiter.

\farc

Rlack

C5ihlf»

Kr^on

Vprt

Purple - - - -
Orange - - - -
Dark red - - -

Purpure- - -
Tenney - - -
Sanguine - -

Amethist - -
Jacinth - - -
Sardonix - -

Mercury.
Dragon'shead.
Dragon's tail.

Grand argent are metals; and it is an
. nvariable rule in heraldry not to put co-
lour upon colour, or metal on metal : that
is, if the field be of a colour, the charge
or bearing must be of a metal.

COLOUR, in law, is a probable or plau-
sible plea, though in reality false at. bot-
tom, and only calculated to draw the trial
of the cause from the jury to the judge ;
and therefore colour ought to be matter
of law, or doubtful to the jury.

In pleading, it is a rule that no man be
allowed to plead specially such a plea as
amounts only to the general issue ; but in
such case he shall be driven to plead the
general issue, in terms by which the whole
question is referred to a jury. But if a
defendant in an assize, or action of tres-
pass, be desirous to refer the validity of
his title to the court rather than to the
jury, he may state his title specially, and
at the same time give colour to the plain-
tiff; or suppose him to have an appear-
ance or colour of title, bad indeed in point
of law, but of which the jury are not
competent judges.

COLOUR, in calico-printing. The term
colour in calico-printing isapplied not only
to those vegetable, animal, and mineral
solutions, which impart their own colour
to the cloth on which they are applied, but
also improperly to those earthy or metallic
solutions, which, possessing little or no
tingent properties themselves, yet retain
or fix the qualities (colours) of other sub-
stances, when afterwards applied to the

cloth. Thus the a«etite of alumina, or prin-
ter's red liquor, when pure, is almost co-
lourless,and only becomes red by the pro-
cess of dyeing, as will be explained here-
after. The acetite of iron, or iron liquor,
in like manner, when used of a determi-
nate strength, is called black colour, and
when weaker, purple colour, though the
cloth impregnated with these solutions
becomes black or purple, only as being
raised like the other in the dye-copper.
1. The colours produced by means of
these earthy or metallic solutions (which
in the language of science are called mor-
dants) form the most valuable and impor-
tant series, whether considered with re-
gard to the almost infinite variety of
shades, or to their solidity and durability.
These colours, from the mode in which
they are produced, (the mordant being
first applied to the cloth, and the colour
afterwards raised by dyeing,) are called
dyed colours. 2. Sometimes the mordant
is previously mixed with a solution of co-
louring matter, and in that state applied
to the cloth, so as to paint or stain it at
one operation and without the process of
dyeing. Thus another class of colours is
produced, many of them possessing great
brilliancy indeed, but much inferior to the
former in durability. The colours called
chemical by calico-printers belong chiefly
to this class. 3. In the third and last
class we may place all those, where the
colouring matter is simply held in solu-
tion by an acid or alkali, and in this state

COLOURS.

applied to the cloth without the interven-
tion of any mordant. To one or other
of the foregoing classes may be referred
all the colours used in calico-printing1,
with the exception, however, of those sys-
tems of colours which have been pro-
duced by calico-printers in this country,
within a short period, by processes and
upon principles which have hitherto not
been made known. See

COLOUR of the clouds is thus accounted
for by Sir Isaac Newton. Concluding",
from a series of experiments, that the
transparent parts of bodies, according to
their several sizes, reflect rays of one co-
lour, and transmit those of another, he
hence observes, that when vapours are
first raised, they are divided into parts
too small to cause any reflection at their
surfaces, and therefore do not hinder the
transparency of the air ; but when they
begin to coalesce, in order to form drops
of rain, and constitute globules of all in-
termediate sizes, these globules are capa-
ble of reflecting some colours, and trans-
mitting others, and thus form clouds of
various colours, according to their sizes.
Mr. Melville controverts this doctrine, in
its application to the red colour of the
morning and evening clouds. " Why,"
he says, " should the particles of the
clouds become at that particular time,
and never at any other, of such a magni-
tude as to separate these colours ? And
why are they rarely, if ever, seen tinc-
tured with blue and'green, as well as red,
orange, or yellow ? Is it not more credi-
ble, that the separation of rays is made in
passing through the horizontal atmo-
sphere, and that the clouds only reflect
and transmit the sun's light, as any half-
transparent colourless body would do ?
For since the atmosphere reflects a greater
quantity of blue and violet rays than of the
rest, the sun's light transmitted through it
ought to incline towards yellow,orange,or
red ; especially when it passes through a
long tract of air: and thus it is found, that
the sun's horizontal light is tinctured with
a deep orange, and even red; and the co-
lour becomes still deeper after sun-set."
Hence he concludes that the clouds, ac-
cording to their different altitudes, may
assume all the variety of colours at sun-
rising and setting, by barely reflecting
the sun's incident light as they receive it.

COLOURS. This very important article
includes a variety of matters of peculiar
interest to various professions, and re-
quiring no inconsiderable portion of study.
We have only seven natural colours,

namely, red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, and violet. See CHROMATICS.

The mathematical use of colours is more
immediately under our present conside-
ration. These are either what are called
body, or transparent : the former applies
to such as have a certain substance, being
like very thin paste, and coating the ob-
ject to which they are applied: these are
again divided into oil and water colours.
Transparent colours are made either of
expressed juices, corrected by inspissa-
tion, or of the finer particles* of earths,
gums, 8cc. highly prepared by levigation,
washing, &c.

Oil colours are made by mixing the co-
louring substances with prepared oils;
that is, such as dry readily, and are at the
same time so fine and transparent as not
to injure the brilliancy or clearness of
the colour. Nut-oil is on this account
highly esteemed ; but in a recent publi-
cation (the seventh number of the Agri-
cultural Magazine) we are informed, that
sun-flower oil possesses qualities of great
moment to the painter, and to various
other artists. The colouring mattermust
be minutely mixed with the oil, so that it
may work perfectly free and smooth.

Body colours for the limner's use should
be prepared of the purest materials, and
be triturated in a mortar, and on a slab
with water, until such time as the mixture
is completely smooth,and leaves no rough-
ness when rubbed between the thumb and
fore-finger: not, however, withoutmaking
allowance for some particular substances,
especially minerals, which, however well
they may have been prepared, will occa-
sion a roughness to the touch. Body co-
lours are usually sold in bottles, ready
mixed to their proper consistence, and
sometimes in cakes, with a small portion
of gum Arabic dissolved in the water.
Oil colours are most frequently sold in
kegs, and ready ground, but requiring an
addition of oil before they can be work-
ed : these are generally for the use of
house painters, &c. : those for the more
delicate purposes are usually kept in
bladders.

Transparent colours should be so clear,
when mixed with abundance of water, as
to communicate a strong tint, without in
the smallest degree plastering or conceal-
ing the paper, &c. : hence their designa-
tion. The best of every kind are made
from either vegetable or animal substan-
ces ; minerals being extremely difficult to
prepare, equally so to work with water,
and many of them very subject to change.
We shall give a concise account of the

COLOURS.

materials in general use ; observing, that
there are an immense .number of com-
pound colours, sold under various names,
that may be made from the following list
of simples:

REDS.

Carmine, or the extract of cochineal.
Excellent.

Florentine lake, made from refuse cochi-
neal., with a small addition of Brazil wood,
precipitated by adding a solution of tin.
Does not stand.

Madder lake, the same as the foregoing,
but sometimes with the addition of extract
of madder. Stands.

Rose lake, or rose pink, made of chalk
tinctured with extract of Brazil wood.
Does not stand.

VermilUon is a bright scarlet, made from
levigated cinnabar. Very apt to turn
black.

Red-lead, or minium, levigated, also
turns black.

Indian red, an ochre brought from Asia,
forms a beautiful bright brick red. Works
freely and stands well.

Venetian red is a coarser substance, usu-
ally employed with size or oil, to imitate
mahogany.

Light red. This is yellow ochre heated
until it changes. Stands well, and is
much used.

Red chalk is generally cut into slips, and
used as a crayon. It must be very well
ground, when it works and stands well,
either with oil or water.

Burnt terra sienna, is raw sienna calcin-
ed till it becomes a fine mellow red. It is
in high estimation for its richness, smooth-
ness, and stability.

Orange is usually a compound colour,
but may be made from red orpiment, and
from an infusion of turmeric in spirits of
wine, with a solution of tin.

YELLOWS.

Indian yellow, made from chalk impreg-
nated with urine, whereby it in process
of time acquires a very strong colour.
It is* offensive to the smell, and soon
fades.

King's yellow is a strong poison; the
basis being yellow orpiment, ground very
fine. The colour is very rich, but does
not stand.

Naples yellow comes from that country :
5s prepared from lead and antimony. It
turns black, especially if in contact with

Yellow ochre, or Roman ochre, an earth
coloured by oxide of iron. It is dull, but
stands well.

Massicot is oxide of lead — very dull,
but stands.

Dutch pink is chalk coloured with
French berries. The colour is beautiful,
but soon flies.

Gamboge\s a gum very acid, but high-
ly useful. It stands well, mixes freely,
and gives a rich gloss; but it does not
answer with oil.

Gall-stones are calculi, or stones taken
from the gall-bladders of animals. See
CALCULI. This colour may be obtained
from the gall itself. It is superb, but apt
to fly.

Turmeric and Saffron yield a pleasing
colour, as does annatto, but very volatile.

BROWNS.

The finest we have is taken from a small
bag found in the entrails of the cock-
chaffer.

liistreis the extract of soot from burnt
wood. It stands admirably, and is a very
useful as well as clear colour. It is much
used for sketches, to which it £ives a
warm appearance.

Cologne earth, a deep brown, very use-
ful, made from an ochre said to be from
Cologne, but often spurious.

Raw timber, a light-brown ochre, that
stands well.

Jiurnt umber, the former calcined,
thence acquiring, a much richer tint, that
stands admirably, and is much in use.

Asphaltum is a bituminous substance,
which, being dissolved in turpentine.gives
a rich deep brown, not unlike that of tar :
it is used for finishing and for glazing pic-
tures.

Brown pink is made of chalk, coloured
with fustic, and heightened by fixed alka-
line salts, which render it extremely vola-
tile.

Tobacco juice makes a very rich colour,
which, mixed with alum, will stand well :
it is peculiarly warm and transparent.

BLACKS.

Indian ink is supposed to be made from
the gall of the cuttle-fish, but by many
is said to be nothing more than a pecu-
liar kind of charcoal, or the soot collected
from burning a species of the acacia. In
fact, we only know that it should be
black, smooth, and glossy, when broken ;
and that it makes remarkably fine black;
some, indeed, have a brownish tint.

COLOURS.

What is made in England is coarse, rough,
gritty ; ana generally has a bluish cast.

Lamp black is the soot of oil collected
by means of inverted vessels placed over
the flames ; it is incomparably smooth,
and stands well ; but is not very deep.

Ivory black is made of ivory, bones,
Sec. exposed to great heat in a well luted
crucible. It is a very deep, but a cold
colour.

Jilue black is made from vine stalks
prepared as above : its colour is deep,
but with a bluish cast.

BLUES.

Indigo is the extract from a plant of
that name : it is a cold but permanent
colour : it is not miscible with water, but
gives way to the sulphuric acid.

Prussian blue is made with two parts of
purified potash well mixed with one of
dried bullock's blood levigated : these are
calcined in a covered crucible, with a mo-
derate fire, until they cease to emit fumes.

Blue verditer is made by absorbing the
copper dissolved in aqua fortis, by aid of
whitening.

Smalt is pounded zaffre, made from the
ore of zinc.

JBrice is levigated smalt, and rather
lighter.

All the above colours are very durable.

The Crocus-marlis gives a simple pur-
ple, which colour may also be obtained
from logwood, with a solution of tin.

GREEKS.

Verdigris is an incrustation of copper
by the corrosion of acids : it is highly
poisonous ; but gives a beautiful green
colour, with a very slight bluish tinge :
when boiled with vinegar, in an earthen
vessel, it gives a highly transparent co-
lour, fit for washing brass, &c. ; but this
is very apt to fade.

Sap-green is the concreted juice of the
buckthorn berry : it is a dull green, and
is much in use, though apt to fade.

WHITES.

Flake-iolrite is an oxide of lead, formed
by corrosion of that metal with vegetable
acids.

White-lead is the same as the above, but
coarser ; it is not so good as flake white,
nften turning black.

Pure carbonate of lime stands perfectly
well, and is much used : ii is by some
called Spanish white, and is nearly the
same as the pigments produced from egg*
shells, or oyster shells, calcined.

Calcined hartshorn is an excellent
white.

The above catalogue of colours is in-
tended for the service of those who ap-
ply them with the brush, as in oil-paint-
ing, and in limning. The colours used by
dyers are very different, and are chiefly
pastil, woad, ancl indigo, for blues ; co-
chineal, carthamus, gum-lac, archil, log-
wood, madder, &c. for red ; weld, savory,
quercitron, fenu-greek, &c. for yellows ;
walnut bark, or rind, alder bark, sandal
wood, sumach, and soot, are used for
browns, or, as they are technically called,
fawn colours ; for black, galls, copperas,
&c. ; greens are generally compounds
made from blue and yellow ; purples
from blue and red ; orange colour from
red and yellow ; and many shades are
made by the mixture of red and black,
black and blue, &.c. ; yellow and red also
give an olive colour. See DYEIJTG.

COLOURS diatonic, or musical scale of-
In the course of Sir Isaac Newton's ex-
periments on the properties of light, he
discovered the remarkable fact, that the
spectrum of the sun's image, formed by
refracted light, let into a darkened room,is
longitudinally divided by the points sepa-
rating the different colours ; viz. violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
red, into spaces, which are respectively
equal to £. ^. fa _L, .^ ^ and fa
parts of the double length of the spec-
trum ; as, suppose the spectrum to be
360 parts in length, then _8P_ _^ ^

£Wf<P 7^>and45o>wi11 represent
the length of each colour respectively ,and
adding these successively in the reverse
order, to ^fo, we have Jffrffl,

' and

lowest terms, are 1, J>ff, f, |, |, £, |,
and 1, and appear to be the diatonic ratios
answering to the octave, minor seventh,
major sixth, fifth, minor fourth, minor
third, major second, and key note.

From the experiments of Henry
Broughton, jun. Esq., " Philosophical
Transactions, 1796," it appears that, not
only by refraction, but by inflection, de-
flection, and reflection, the rays of light
may be separated on a chart or screen :
and he mentions numerous experiments,
wherein the limits of the several colours
on the spectrum were carefully marked

COL

ers
ole

with the point of a needle, after which
the papers thus marked were put away,
and afresh paper substituted for other ex-
periments, the measurement or compari-
son of the lengths of the intervals occu-
pied byeach colour on the different pap
being purposely deferred, until the wh
course of experiments was completed, in
order to prevent any preconceived opi-
nions from operating, in making the ex-
periments : the results are represented
as agreeing, in the spaces, £, T^, _!_,

T5> TT» TfV and TV °cc"Pied by ^e vio-
let, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange,
and red colours, being the very same, as
to arrangement, as those by refraction
above mentioned.

COLOUR of office, signifies some unjust
action, done under countenance of an of-
fice, and is opposed to virtute ojfficii, which
implies a man's doing a right and just
thing in the execution of his office.

COLOURS, in the military art, include
the banners, flags, ensigns, &c. of all
kinds, borne in the army or fleet. See
ENSIGN, FLAG, PENDANT, and STANDARD.

COLOURING, in painting, one of the
great component and essential parts of
painting, is the art of giving to every ob-
ject in a picture its true and proper hue,
as it appears under all the various circum-
stances or combinations of light, middle-
tint, and shadow ; and of so blending and
contrasting the colours, as to make each
appear with the greatest advantage and
beauty, at the same time that it contri-
butes to the richness, the brilliancy, and
the harmony of the whole. It likewise
possesses powers, which, when judicious-
ly applied, render it highly conducive to
the character and expression of the sub-
ject represented. See PAINTING.

COLOURING matter. It has been sup-
posed that a peculiar proximate princi-
ple exists in vegetables, in which their
colour frequently resides, and which has
hence received the name of colouring
matter.

The colouring matter of vegetables is
scarcely ever found insulated, but is mix-
ed or combined with other principles. In
this state it exists in the leaves and
flowers, in the bark, and in the wood of
the stem and roots. It is extracted, and
obtained more pure, by the action of those
agents which are capable of dissolving it.
In many cases, water, cold or warm, is
sufficient for this purpose. If logwood,
brazil wood, madder, weld, or querci-
tron bark, for example, be macerated in
water, the matter on which the colour
depends is dissolved ; a transparent solu-

tion, more or less deeply coloured, is ob-
tained ; and, by repeating the macera-
tion with water sufficiently, nothing at
length remains but the mere ligneous fi-
bre. Sometimes, however, the colour-
ing matter is not soluble in water : it is
then frequently soluble in alcohol ; and,
in a few substances, is even best dissolved
by oils essential or expressed.

When the colouring matter is in solu-
tion, it may be attracted from the solvent
by other substances with which it enters
into combination : and this, in some mea-
sure, gives it a more appropriate charac-
ter. There are some substances even
which appear in general to exert strong
affinities to colouring matter, particular-
ly alumina and some of the metallic ox-
ides. If alumina be diffused or boiled in
a coloured vegetable infusion, it often
happens, that the colouring matter com-
bines with it, and leaves the water of the
infusion perfectly colourless. Or if alum
be dissolved in a coloured infusion, and it
be decomposed by the addition of an al-
kali, the alumina, in the moment of its
precipitation, attracts the colouring mat-
ter, forms a coloured precipitate, and, if
the due proportions have been observed,
the liquid w ill remain colourless. In like
manner, if a coloured infusion be boiled
with a metallic oxide, it often happens,
that the colouring matter is attracted by
the oxide. Thus Berthollet obtained
combinations by this process of the co-
louring matter of logwood, and other dye-
stuffs, with oxide of copper, and oxide of
tin. Or if certain metallic salts be dis-
solved in the infusion, and be then de-
composed by an alkali, the oxide, in pre-
cipitating, equally attracts the colouring
matter. It is from similar affinities to the
colouring matter that it is often attracted
by linen, cotton, silk,' or wool, from its
solutions ; and even where the affinities
of these are not sufficiently powerful,
they may be rendered capable of attract-
ing it, or the combination may be render-
ed more permanent by their being im-
pregnated with another substance, which
has towards it a still stronger attraction.
See DYEING.

COLPODA, in natural history, a genus
of the Vermes Infusoria : worm, invisible
to the naked eye, very simple, pellucid,
flat sinuate. There are seven species, of
which C. lamella, in water, resembles a
long, narrow, pellucid membrane, narrow-
er and obtuse behind, curved towards
the top, with aridge orfold going through
the middle : it moves to and fro on its
edge, and not so on the flat side.

COLUBER.

COLUBER, in natural history, a genus
of serpents., distinguished by having plates
on the body, and scales on the under
parts of the tail. The species of this ge-
nus are numerous. Linnxus describes,
upon the testimony of various writers,
above ninety; and that number even has
been considerably augmented by natura-
lists since his time. The species differ
greatly in size and habit ; some, as the
vipers, having the head large, flattish, and
semi-cordated, with the body and tail of
a moderate length, or rather short ; while
others, as the greater part of the harmless
serpents, have small heads, with the bo-
dy and tail much longer in proportion. In
some, exclusive of the usual scales under
the tail, are a few scuta or undivided la-
mellse, either at the beginning or to-
wards the tip of the tail.

Linnaeus considered the number of ab-
dominal plates and scales under the tail
as a characteristic distinction of the differ-
ent species of this genus; such, how-
ever, is the inconsistency of this criterion,
that, in describing the same species,
scarcely two writers agree. Characters
taken from the number of those plates
and scales in the serpent tribe, like those
from the number of rays in the fins of
fishes, are not be relied upon. The
colours are liable to some variation; but
the peculiar form and disposition of the
spots, lines, and other markings, afford,
in general, a character, by which the dif-
ferent species may be distinguished.

C. vipera. Somewhat ferruginous, spot-
ted with brown ; beneath whitish ; tail
short and mucronated. Abdominal scuta
118, subcaudal scales 22. Linnaeus. This
is the common viper of Egypt ; it is im-
ported in considerable quantities every
year to Venice, for the use of the apothe-
caries. Its size is somewhat smaller than
that of the common viper ; the head not
so flat on the top, but very protuberant
on each side ; snout very obtuse. The
body is thick towards the middle, and
somewhat quadrangular, but thin and
cylindric towards the head and tail, which
last is short, slender, conical, and termi-
nated by a slightly incurved horny point
or tip. The scales on the upper parts
are oval and carinated. Hasselquist de-
scribes this species as being about two
spans in length, exclusive of the tail,
which measures only an inch. This is
supposed by some to be the asp, by the
bite of which the celebrated Cleopatra
determined rather to die than submit to
be carried captive to Rome, to grace the
triumph of Augustus.
C. berus. On the head a bilobate spot;

body above cinerous (or reddish) with a
black flexuous zig-zag stripe down the
back, and belly purplish. Coluber berus, ^
abdominal scuta 146, subcaudal scales 39.
Linnaeus. This is the common English
viper, and which is not only frequent in
this country, but appears to be generally
diffused over the rest of Europe, and
some parts of Asia. If the varieties, de-
scribed by Gmelin, are of the same spe-
cies, it extends also as far as India.

Though the viper varies considerably
in colour, from a pale cinereous or yellow-
ish ferruginoub, to deep or dull brown,
the varieties agree in being marked with
a continued series of confluent rhomboid
blackish spots, extending from the head
to the tail. The general length of the
viper is from eighteen inches to two feet,
and it is affirmed by some writers to grow
even to the length of three feet. The
fangs of the viper, like those of other
poisonous serpents, are situated on each
side the fore part of the upper jaw, and
are generally two in number, with a few
smaller ones situated behind. The poi-
son, as usual, lies in a receptacle at the
base of the fangs, and being perforated,
when the animal bites, the compression
of those receptacles forces out a drop of
the poisonous fluid, which, passing
through the aperture of the fangs, is im-
mediately instilled into the wound. The
tongue is forked, and, being soft and
flexible, is susceptible of great extension :
it may be, perhaps, superfluous to add, that
this tongue is altogether incapable of in-
flicting any wound, or injecting poison,
as some ancient writers credulously af-
firm ; it may assist the animal in the cap-
ture of its insect prey. The French na-
turalists are inclined to believe it is in-
tended by nature to supply some defect
of transpiration in the skin. Hitherto the
viper has been considered the most poi-
sonous of the European serpents, and
many instances are recorded of the fatal
effects resulting from its bite. That the
bite of this serpent is always productive
of pain and temporary inflammation in
the parts bitten is very evident ; some-
times also the symptoms may become
alarming, or in a few instances, through
neglect or injudicious treatment of the
wound, may even prove fatal; but, upon
the whole, the bite of this creature does
not appear pregnant with all those dan-
gers which the terrors and prejudices of
the vulgar lead them to suppose. In Eng-
land the bite of the viper is rarely attend-
ed with fatal consequences. Fontana
seems to doubt whether any well attested
instance can be adduced of the viper hav-

COL

• ng killed any person by its bite, even in
the warm climate of Italy. The testimo-
nies of authors, both as to the nature of
the poison itself, and its effects on the
animal frame, are, however, confessedly
at variance.

The viper, though so much dreaded on
account of its bite, has been very highly
esteemed, both by the ancients and mo-
derns, as a restorative and strengthening
diet. The ancients used the flesh of this
snake in leprous and other cases. The
Greek physician Craterus cured, as Por-
phynus relates, a miserable slave, whose
skin in a strange manner fell oft' from his
bones, by advising him to feed on vipers'
flesh in the manner of fish. Galen says,
that those afflicted with elephantiasis are
wonderfully relieved by eating viper's
flesh dressed like eels, and relates very
remarkable cures of this disease perform-
ed by means of viper wine. In France
and Italy, the broth, jelly, and flesh of
vipers are in much esteem as a restora-
tive medicine. In England we have to
instance the well known circumstance of
Sir Kenelm Digby, who caused his wife,
Lady Venetia, to feed on capons fatted
with vipers, to recover her from a con-
sumption.

The viper abounds most in diy, stony,
and chalky countries, or in the low her-
bage or underwood- in thickets. It casts
its skin twice in the year, namely, in
spring and autumn, and is said to attain
its full size at the age of six or seven
years, but is capable of engendering
when two or three years old.

COLUMBA, tht pigeon, in natural his-
tory, a genus of birds of the order of
Passeres. Generic character : bill weak,
straight, descending towards the tip;
nostrils oblong, and almost covered with
a soft tumid membrane ; tongue entire ;
legs short, and generally red ; toes divid-
ed to their origin. Latham enumerates no
less than 66 species, and Gmelin men-
tions even 82, besides considerable varie-
ties. We shall confine our notices to the
few which follow.

C. domestica, or the common pigeon.
Of these birds vast flocks arrive in Eng-
land every year from the northern cli-
mates, to which they return on the ad-
vance of spring. Many, however, re-
main in the wild and mountainous dis-
tricts of this island during the whole year,
and breed in the clefts of rocks, or the
ruins of human habitations, or in the de-
cayed parts of trees. From this wild
state they are easily induced to inhabit
the dove-house, which is the first stage of
domestication, and near which they find,
in vast abundance, and within a small

compass, all those conveniences, which,
in tracts far from human habitation, they
can collect only from a considerable dis-
tance, and with extreme difficulty. From
this accommodation by man, however,
there is perpetual danger of their recur-
ring to their former state of freedom, in
which, though their means of subsistence
are more scanty, they are less subject to
alarms. The wild pigeon breeds only
twice in a year, but its prolific tenden-
cies increase in proportion to its degree
of domestication ; and when that is com-
plete, it will lay even every month, but
scarcely ever more than two eggs, con-
taining generally a male and female
bird. The flesh of this bird is highly va-
lued for the table. Its dung is consider-
ed, for some species of land, as a most ad-
mirable manure, and it is of considerable
service also in tanning skins for shoe
leather. In Egypt, a pigeon-house is
considered as an indispensable part of
every complete farming establishment ;
and in the capital of Persia, there are re-
ported to be 3000 of these buildings, the
privilege of keeping which is denied to
Christians in that country. An effica-
cious inducement for pigeons to remain
in any particular spot is furnished by a
mixed heap of loam, rubbish, and salt.
Incubation is performed among these
birds alternately by the male and female ;
and the young1 are fed from the mouths of
the old parents, who are said, for this
purpose, by contracting some particular
muscles, to draw up the provisions which
they have swallowed. Pigeons have been
occasionally used for the conveyance of
letters, in cases in which intercourse be-
tween the parties was extremely diffi-
cult ; the bird is to be taken from the
places to which the intelligence is to be
sent, and when liberated will return to its
destination with great rapidity, with the
interesting billet under its wing. There
are few or no cases, however, which now
compel recourse to so operose and doubt-
ful an expedient.

C. palumbus, or the ring-dove. These
are found in almost all parts of Europe.
They depart from England, however, to-
wards the close of. the year, and are ab-
sent till the spring. They build large
and ill compacted nests in the tops of
trees, and avoid the habitations of men.
They are one of the largest species of the
pigeon, their length being rather more
than seventeen inches. Sec Aves, Plate
IV. fig. 6.

C. turtur, or the turtle-dove. These
arrive in England later than any other
migrating pigeon, and depart earlier.

COL

During their short stay in this country,
they are to be seen, not unfrequently, in
KtrV, In flocks of about fifteen or twenty,
and commit no small depredations on the
pea hekls of that county, peas being their
most favour'. te food. They build general-
ly in the wood?, and on the highest trees.
The sounds of the male are particularly
soft and impressive, and his assiduity to
please the companion of his joys and cares
has induced the poets of every age to ex-
hibit him as a model of pure, constant,
and delicate attachment. See Aves, Plate
IV. fig. 7.

C. migratoria, or the American migra-
tory pigeon. These birds pass the sum-
mer in the northern parts of North Ame-
rica, and on the approach of winter move
towards the southern. They build in
trees, and feed principally upon acorns,
and mast of every description. They are
also extremely fond of rice and corn.
They pass in their periodical migrations
in flocks, stated to extend in length two
miles, and a quarter of a mile in width ;
occasionally alighting in the course of
their journey, and covering the foliage of
considerable woods. During what is
called their flight time, the common peo-
ple of the country easily knock them from
their roosts, and find them a very nourish-
ing and pleasant, as well as cheap article
of food. In Louisiana, it is a common en-
tertainment in an evening, in which ladies
frequently participate, to enter the woods
frequented by these birds, and burn a
small quantity of sulphur under the trees
on which they are lodged. Stupified by
this application, they almost immediately
quit their hold, and drop lifeless to the
ground, whence they are picked up in
quantities.

C. oenas inhabits old turrets, and rocky
banks of Europe and Siberia, fig. 2.

COLUMBIUM, in mineralogy and
chemistry. Mr. Hatchet, in examining
some minerals in the British Museum,
observed one. which attracted his atten-
tion, from its resemblance >o chromate
of iron. On analysing it, he found it to be
composed of a metallic acid, united with
oxide of iron ; and this acid, by farther
experiments, was found to differ in its
properties from every other. Mr. Hatchet
did not succeed in reducing it to the me-
tallic state. To the metal, however,
which he supposed to be its basis, he
gave the name of Colflmbium, as tbe ore
affording it was the produce of America.
The mineral which afforded this metallic

VOL. III.

acid is of a dark brownish grey colour ;
its lustre is vitreous, inclining to metal-
lic : its fracture imperfectly lamellated :
it is moderately hard and very brittle :
its particles are not attracted by the mag-
net : its specific gravity is 5.9. From
this mineral Mr. Hatchet extracted the
peculiar matter which may be named co-
lumbic acid. The columbic acid is of a
pure white colour, and not extremely
heavy ; it has scarcely any taste, nor does
it appear to be soluble in boiling water,
but, when placed on litmus paper, mixed
with distilled water, soon renders the pa-
per red.

From the acid solutions of columbic
acid, the alkalies throw it down in the
form of a white flocculent precipitate.
Prussiate of potash changes the colour
to an olive-green, and a precipitate of
the same colour is gradually form-
ed. Tincture of galls produces a deep
orange-coloured precipitate, especial-
ly when there is not too great an
excess of acid present. Zinc, immers-
ed in the solution, gives rise to a
white precipitate. The fixed alkalies
combine readily, both in the humid and
in the dry way, with columbic acid,
forming with it salts called columbates.
When fused with it, a compound is form-
ed, which is soluble in water; and if the
alkali be in the state of carbonate, the
carbonic acid is disengaged during the
fusion with effervescence. When a so-
lution of potash is boiled on it, a quantity
is dissolved; the solution, which has a
considerable excess of alkali, affords, by
gentle evaporation, a white salt in shin-
ing scales, having a disagreeable acrid
flavour, not soluble very readily in cold
water, but, when dissolved, the solution
is permanent. Nitric acid added to it
precipitates the columbic acid. Prussiate
of potash and tincture of galls produced
no change ; but when with either of
them a few drops of muriatic acid were
added, precipitates, similar to those pro-
duced by these re-agents in the acid so-
lutions, appeared an olive green with the
one, and an orange-coloured precipitate
with the other. Hydro-sulphuret of am-
monia produced a reddish brown precipi-
tate.

This substance is possessed of proper-
ties different from any of the known me-
tals or metallic oxides or acids : for al-
though in some qualities it approaches
to titanium, tungsten, or to molybdena,
it differs from them, and from all the
others, particularly in the precipitates
it affords with prussiate of potash and

COL

tincture of galls, in not combining with
ammonia, and in being insoluble, and un-
alterable with regard to colour, by nitric
acid.

COLUMELLA, in botany, a genus of
the Syngenesia Superflua class and or-
der; receptacle naked, cellular; seeds
crowned with a toothed margin ; calyx
cylindrical, imbricate ; florets of the ray
undivided. One species, found at the
Cape.

COLUMN, a round pillar, made to sup-
port and adorn a building, and composed
of a base, a shaft, and a capital.

Columns are different in the different
orders of architecture, and may be con-
sidered with regard to their matter, con-
struction, form, disposition, and use. See
ARCHITECTURE.

COLUMNEA, in botany, a genus of the
"Didynamia Angiospermia class and order.
Natural order of Personatae. Scrophula-
riac, Jussieu. Essential character : calyx
five-parted; corolla ringent; upper-lip
three-parted ; the middle? part vaulted,
emarginate ; gibbous above at the base ;
anthers connected ; capsule two-celled;
seeds nestling. There are six species, all
natives of hot countries, and most of them
of the West Indies.

COLUMN LFERJE, in botany, the name
of the thirty-seventh order in Linnseus's
" Fragments of a Natural Method," con-
sisting of plants whose stamina and pistil
have the appearanpe of a pillar in the cen-
tre of a flower : an instance of this order
is the genus BIXA, which see.

COLURES, in astronomy and geogra-
phy, two great circles, supposed to inter-
sect each other at right angles in the
poles of the world, and to pass through
the solstitial and equinoctial points of the
ecliptic. That which passes through the
two equinoctial points is called the equi-
noctial colure, and determines the equi-
noxes;and the otherwhich passes through
the poles of the ecliptic is called the sol-
stitial colure, because it determines the
solstices.

COLUTEA, in botany, a genus of the
Diadelphia Decandria class and order.
Natural order of Papilionaceae or Legu-
rninosse. Essential character : calyx five-
cleft ; legume inflated, gaping on the up-
per suture at the base. There are nine
species. Most of the Coluteas are shrubs,
with, pinnate leaves, and stipules distinct
from the petiole ; peduncles sometimes
two-flowered, but more frequently many-
flowered in spikes, both axillary and ter-
minating. They are easily distinguished

by their membranaceous, inflated pod ;
natives of hot climates.

COLYMBUS, the diver, in natural his-
tory, a genus of birds of the order An-
seres. Generic character : bill toothless,
subulate, straight, and pointed : throat
toothed; nostrils linear; legs fettered.
The guillemot and the diver are included
by Gmelin under one genus, while Ln-
tham considers each as furnishing a genus
by itself. We shall adopt the system of
the former, and notice, in what follows,
the most important of these two classes,
under one head.

C. troile, or foolish guillemot. These
birds are, in summer, surprisingly abun-
dant on the coasts of England, and furnish
to the sportsman an invaluable supply of
experience in the art of shooting flying.
Whatever numbers may be destroyed, the
rest only quit their stand to take a circu-
lar flight, which brings them back to the
spot whence the gun alarmed them, and
which the death of their companions
cannot induce them finally to leave.
Their flesh is eaten by theKamschatkans,
though extremely ill- flavoured, and their
skins valued by those people as a highly
ornamental dress. The eggs are said to
be extremely delicate, and it is remarka-
ble that no two are spotted or streaked
alike.

C. glacialis, or the Northern diver, is
the largest of the genus, and weighs so
much as sixteen pounds, measuring three
feet six inches in length. This is found in
various places in the North of Europe, but
scarcely ever seen so far south as England,
unless i n wi nters extremely rigorous. It
is rarely see-i on land, being almost per-
petually on the ocean, where it dives
with extreme vigour in pursuit of various
fishes, and with such dexterity as rarely
fails of success. It can fly with rapidity,
and to a great distance. In Iceland it is
often found, and, while breeding, fre-
quents the lakes and rivers of that
island. The inhabitants of the banks of
the Oby prepare the skin of this bird
without injuring1 the feathers, and ren-
der it convertible into compact, durable,
and ornamental parts of dress, as caps,
or even mantles, which are proofs
against moisture, and afford extraordinary
warmth.

C. immer, or the imber, resembles the
last in habits and manners. It is found
in the lakes of Canada, and in those of
Switzerland, as well as in ulmost uli the
northern parts of Europe. It will swim
under water to the distance of a huh-

COM

dred paces, and is caught by land or in
the water with extreme difficulty. By a
hooked line, however, baited with its
favourite fish, it has often been drawn up
from a considerable depth, and thus ex-
hibited to many observers a singular va-
riety from the' sportsman's usual prac-
tice.

COMA, or COMA-VIGIL, a preternatu-
ral propensity to sleep, when nevertheless
the patient does not sleep, or, if he does,
awakes immediately without any relief.
See MKPICIXE.

COMA, in botany, a collection of floral
leaves, which, in the crown imperial, la-
vender, sage, cow-wheat, and some other
plants, terminate the flower-stem, and
form an appearance like a tuft of hair.

COMA JJerem'ces, Jferemce's hair, in as-
tronomy, a constellation of the Northern
hemisphere, composed of stars near the
Lion's tail. See ASTROXOMT.

COM ARUM, in botany, a genus of the
Icosandria Polygamia class and order.
Natural order of Senticosx. Rosaceae,
Jtissieu. Essential character : calyx ten-
cleft; petals five, smaller than the calyx;
receptacle of tke seeds ovate, spongy,
permanent. There is but one species;
viz. C. palustre, marsh-cinquefoil, a na-
tive of most parts of Europe, in boggy-
ground.

COMB, an instrument made of horn,
ivory, tortoise-shell, box, or holly-wood,
&c. and useful for separating and adjust-
ing the hair, &c.

CoyiR-maki?ig. Combs are not only
made for the purpose of cleansing the
hair, but for ornament : they are some-
times set with brilliant stones, pearls, and
even diamonds; some again are studded
with cut steel : these are of different
shapes, and are used to fasten up the hair
when ladies dress without caps. Combs
may, of course, be had of all prices, from
the value of a few pence to almost any
sum. They are generally made of the
horns of bullocks or of elephants, and
sea-horse's teeth, and some are made of
tortoise-shell and ivory, others of box or
holly-wood. The horns of bullocks are
thus prepared for this manufactory : the
lips are sawn ofF; they are then held
in the flame of a wood fire ; this is called
roasting, by which they become nearly
as soft as leather. While in that state
they are slit open on one side, and
pressed in a machine between two iron
plates; they are then plunged into a
trough of water, from which they come
out hard and flat ; they are then sawn into
lengths, according to the si/.e wanted.

To cut the teeth, each piece is fixed into
a tool called a claw. The maker sits on a
triangular sort of a stool to his work, and
under him is placed the claw that holds
the horn, ivory, &c. that is to be formed
into a comb. The teeth are cut with a
fine saw, or rather a pair of saws, and
they are finished with a file. A coarser
file, called a rasp, is used to reduce the
horn, &c. to a proper thickness ; and
when they are completely made, they
are polished with charcoal and water, and
receive their last finish with powder of
rotten stone. The process used for mak-
ing ivory combs is nearly the same as
that already described, except that the
ivory is first sawed into thin slices. The
best ivory comes from the island of Cey-
lon, and Achen, in the East Indies ; as it
possesses the property of never turning
yellow, it is consequently much dearer
than any other kind.

Tortoise-shell combs are much es-
teemed ; and there are methods of stain-
ing horn, so as to imitate it, of which the
following is one ; the horn to be dyed is
first to be pressed into a flat form, and
then done over with a paste, made of two
parts of quick-lime and one of litharge,
brought into a proper consistence with
soap-ley. This paste must be put over
all the parts of the horn, except such as
are proper to be left transparent, to give
it a nearer resemblance to tortoise-shell.
The horn must remain in this state till
the paste be quite dry, when it is to be
brushed oflT. It requires taste and judg-
ment, so to dispose the paste, as to
form a variety of transparent parts, of dif-
ferent magnitudes and figures, to look like
nature. Some parts should also be semi-
transparent, which may be effected by
mixing whiting with a part of the paste,
By this means spots of a reddish brown
will be produced, so as greatly to in-
crease the beauty of the work. Horn
thus dyed is manufactured into combs,
and these are frequently sold for real tor-
toise-shell.

COMBAT, in law, or single combat,
denotes a form of trial between two cham-
pions of some doubtful cause or quarrel,
by the sword or batoons. This form of
proceeding1 was anciently very frequent,
particularly among the barbarous nations
in their original settlements; and obtain-
ed, not only in criminal, but also in civil
causes; being- built on a presumption,
that God would never grant the victory
but to him who had the best right. It
was originally permitted, in order to de-
termine points respecting the reputation

COMBINATION.

of individuals, but afterwards became
much more extensive. The accuser first
swore to the truth of his accusation ; the
accused gave him the lie : upon which
each threw down a gage, or pledge of
battle, and the parties were committed
prisoners to the day of combat. See
CHAMPION.

COMBINATION, in mathematics, is
the variation or alteration of any number
of quantities, letters, sounds, or the like,
in all the different manners possible. It
is shewn, in the memoirs of the French
Academy, that two square pieces, each
divided diagonally into two colours, may
be combined 64 different ways, so as to
form so many different kinds of chequer-
work ; which appears surprising enough,
when one considers that two letters or
figures can only be combined twice. See
CHANGES.

COMBINATION, doctrine of. Prob. 1.
Any number of quantities being given,
together with the number in each com-
bination, to find the number of combina-
tions. One quantity admits of no combi-
nation : two, a and b, only of one combi-
nation ; of three quantities, a b c, there are
three combinations, viz. a b, a c, b c ,• of
four quantities, there are six combina-
tions, viz, a b,a c,a d, b c,b d, c d ,• of five
quantities, there are ten combinations,
viz. a b, a c, b c, a d, b d, c dy cte, b e,c e,
de. Hence it appears that the numbers
of combinations proceed as 1, 3, 6, 10 ;
that is, they are triangular numbers,
whose sides differ by unity from the
number of given quantities. If this then
be supposed q, the side of the number of
combinations will be q — 1» and so the

number of combinations - — — -? —

See TRIANGULAR NUMBERS.

If three quantities are to be combined,
and the number in each combination be
three, there will be only one combina-
tion, a b c; if a fourth be added, four
combinations will be found, a b c, a b d,
b c d, a c d,- if a fifth be added, the com-
binations will be ten, viz. abc, a b d,b c d,
a c d, a b e, b d e, bee, ace, a d e ; if a
sixth, the combinations will be twenty,
&c. The numbers, therefore, of combi-
nations proceed as 1, 4, 10, 20, &c. that
is, they are the first pyramidal triangular
numbers, whose side differs by two units
from the number of given quantities.
Hence, if the number of given quantities
be q, the side will be q — 2, and so the

number of combinations ' ^

If four quantities are to be combined,
we shall find the numbers of combina-
tions to proceed as pyramidal, triangular
numbers of the second order, 1, 5. 15,
35, &c. whose side differs from the num-
ber of quantities by the exponent minus
an unit. Wherefore, if the number of
quantities be 9, the side will be 9 — 3,

and the number of combinations - — - — J

See PYRAMIDAL

2 3 4

NUMBERS.

Hence is easily deduced a general
rule of determining the number of com-
binations in any case whatsoever. Sup-
pose, for example, the number of quan-
tities to be combined 9, and the expo-
nent of combination n; the number of

.. . 9 — n + 1 q — n+2,

combinations will be — — - — - — — - — '

g-^S.g-^-H, &c t.u the number

to be added be equal to n. Take 9 = 6
and n = 4, the number of combinations
will b 6 — 4+* 6~ 4 + 2 6 — 4 + 3

6 — 4 + 4 6 — 3 6 — 2 6 — 1 — 6+0
4 ~ 1 2 " 3 4

3456

If it be required to know all the possi-
ble combinations of the given quantities,
beginning with the combinations of the
several two's, then proceeding to three's,

&c. we must add~^- ^-~- '^—r— ^-77—

* ,. '' 2 •' 1 • 2

9+0. 9 — 3 9 — 2 9 — 1 9 + 0.
__ _ _ _ _

Whence the number of all the possible
combinations will be r—n — + "^"o —

9~2 , gg-lg — 2g — 3 gg — l
3 "*"! ^2 3 4 ' ' 1 2

^-5 — ? ° g— — which is the sum of
o 4 o

the uncix of the binomial raised to the
power 9, and abridged of the exponent
of the power increased by unity q + 1.
Wherefore, since these uncise come out
1 + 1, by being raised to the power 9;
and since 1 + 1 is equal to 2, 29 — 9 — 1
will be the number of all the possible
combinations. For example, if the num-
ber of quantities be 5, the number of pos-
sible combinations will be 25 — 6=32—
6=26.

Prob. 2. Any number of quantities be-
ing given, to find the number of all these
changes which these quantities, combined1

COM

in all the manners possible, can under-
go. Let there be two quantities a and b,
their variations will be two ; consequent-
ly, as each of them may be combined
with itself, to these there" must be added
two variations more. Therefore the num-
ber of the whole will be 2 4- 2 = 4. If
there were three quantities, and the ex-
ponent of the variation 2, the combina-
tions will be 3, and the changes 3 ; to
wit, a b, a c, b c, and b a, c a, c b ; to
which if we add the three combinations
of each quantity with itself tt a, b b, c c,
we shall have the number of changes
3 + 3 + 3 = 9.
In like manner, it is evident, if the

fiven quantities were 4, and the exponent
, that the number of combinations will
be 6, and the number of changes like-
wise 6, and the number of combinations
of each quantity with itself 4 ; and there-
fore the number of changes 16 ; if with
the same exponent the given quantities
were 5, the number of changes would be
25 ; and in general, if the number of the
quantities were n, the number of changes
would be Tj*.

Suppose the quantities 3, and the ex-
ponent of variation 3, the number of
changes is found 27 = 33,^3. a a a, a a b,
a b a, b a a, a a c, a c a, c a a, a b b, b a b,
b b a, a b c, b a c, b c a, a c bt c a bt c b a,
a c c, c a c, c c a, b b b, b b c, c b A, b c b,
b c c, c b c, c c b, c c c. In like man-
ner it will appear, if the quantities were
4, and the exponent 3, that the number
of changes would be 64 = 43 ; and in
general, if the number of quantities was =
n, and the exponent 3, the number of
changes would be rtf.

By proceeding in this manner it will
be found, if the number of quantities
be n, and the exponent ??, that the num-
ber of changes would be nn. Where-
fore, if all the antecedents be added,
where the exponent is less, the number
of all the possible changes will be found
nn .|_ nn-i + nn-* + nn-3 + nn-4, &c.
till the number subtracted from n leaves
1, because the beginning is from single
quantities taken once.

Since, then, the number of all possible
changes is in a geometrical progression,
the first or smallest term of which is n,
the largest n«, and the denominator n1 ;
it will be equal (n^i — n} -f- (n — 1).
Suppose n = 4, the number of all possi-
ble variations will be (45 — 4)-r-(l — 4) =
1020 „.„
-o— =340.

Suppose again n = 24, the number
»f all the possible variations will be

(241*— 24) + (24— 1) = 32009658644-
406318986777955348250600 divided by
23 = 139172428888725299942512849340-
2200. In so many various methods may
the 24 letters of the alphabet be varied
and combined among themselves.

COMBINATION, in chemistry, is the inti-
mate union of two bodies, by chemical
attraction, into one substance, so that
neither of them can be recognized, nor
can they be separated from each other by
any mechanical force. Of this principle
are the following instances. Salt will
unite with water, from which it cannot
be separated again but by chemical agen-
cy. Sulphur and lime may by heat bfc
united, and form a compound, the pro-
perties of which are totally dissimilar to
those of either the substances used. In
both cases an affinity has been exerted
between the substances, and they have
combined. Combination is to be distin-
guished from mixture, in which dissimi-
lar particles are blended together, with-
out being united by attraction, in which
no new qualities are acquired, in which
the difference of parts is easily discover-
ed, and these parts are capable of being
separated by mechanical means. It is
distinguished from aggregation, which is
merely the union of particles of the same
kind of matter, forming an aggregate,
uniform in composition, but possessing all
the properties of the particles of which
it is composed.

COMBINATION, in military science. One
ought to regard combination as forming
a part of military science. A general, who
has an enterprize in contemplation,
should, before he risks the execution of
it, combine well in his mind all the ideas
that can lead to its success ; and he
ought not always to rely on his own solu-
tion of the case. But when his ideas on
the subject are pretty well fixed, he
should lay them before the general offi-
cers, who are under his orders or com-
mand, for their opinion and concur-
rence.

COMBINATION, in law. Combinations
to do unlawful acts are punishable before
the unlawful acts are executed ; this is to
prevent the consequences of combination
and conspiracies, &c.

COMBRETUM, in botany, a genus of
the Octandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Calycanthemx.
Onagrse, Jussieu. Essential character :
calyx four or five toothed, bell-shaped,
superior ; corolla four or five-petalled,
inserted into the calyx ; stamina very
long ; seed one, four or five-angled, the
angles membranaceous. There are four

COMBUSTION.

species. This genus is very imperfectly
known, and being a very fine one, de-
serves the attention of the cultivators of
exotic plants.

COMBUSTION. The temperature of
bodies may be raised by various means,
which are generally such as produce an
agitation among the particles. The sun's
light, and also the chemical or mechani-
cal actions of bodies upon each other, if
sufficiently intense or rapid, produce
this effect. One of the most generally
kfiovvn methods of producing a high
temperature consists in striking or rub-
bing bodies together ; and there is no ac-
tion more familiar to us, for this pur-
pose, than the striking of a Hint against a
piece of steel. Whenever an elevated
temperature is thus produced in a body
communicating with the open air, it is
observable that, according to the nature
of the body itself, the heat is either con-
ducted away, and nothing farther hap-
pens, or else it continues, and even in-
creases, so as to spread by communica-
tion through every part of the body, and
produce a change in it's nature. Thus, if
one corner or extremity of a thin piece
of stone or glass be made red hot, it will
soon become cold again, and no farther
effect will follow ; but if the corner of a
piece of paper or wood be heated in like
manner, it will not, in common circum-
stances, become cold again without al-
teration, but the heat will be communi-
cated to the whole mass, and will con-
tinue until the body shall have undergone
a remarkable change. This phenomenon
is called combustion or burning ; the bo-
dies which are liable to it are called com-
bustible; and after they have undergone
this process they are said to have been
burned.

There are scarcely any chemical
changes, by which heat is produced, suffi-
cient to exhibit the appearance of light,
unless oxygen be in the act of entering-
into combination with a combustible body.
One of the earliest observations respect-
ing ordinary combustion must have been,
that it cannot take place without com-
mon air, and that it is extinguished by
shutting out the air. It is now well
known, that the air acts only by means
of its oxygen, which unites with and
changes the combustible body.

The earlier doctrines respecting heat
and fire are scarcely entitled to notice ;
and certainly must not occupy our pages.
It will be sufficient, for us to remark,
that the hypothesis of an element called
fire, which was supposed to escape from

burning bodies and ascend to a sphere a-
bove, was modified by Beccher and Stahl,
by the supposition of a general principle,
assumed to exist in all combustible bodies,
and denominated phlogiston ; capable of
passing in combination from one body to
another, or of Hying off' with a violent
agitation, in which the heat was imagined
to consist. As this the'ory was establish-
ed upon the observation of a number of
striking chemical facts, it was for a long
time universally received. Various modi-
fications were, however, proposed by
different chemists, as discoveries came
to be made ; particularly with regard to
the agency and combination of air in bo-
dies, and afterwards those of the exist-
ence of oxygen, and the laws by which
heat, or the cause of temperature, is go-
verned. These advances led to the re-
jection of phlogiston altogether ; a
change of theory, which was more rapid-
ly effected by the patronage, exertions,
and scientific labour of Lavoisier ; who
devoted the influence of an elevated situa-
tion, the extent of his fortune, and the
powers of an uncommonly clear and
comprehensive intellect, to this object.
It is to be regretted that, with claims
so well founded and so great, this philoso-
pher should have sought for more ; but it
is certainly true, that he himself gave sup-
port to the powerful cry of that party,
which has proclaimed him the author of
the modern theory of combustion ; where-
as, if they hud continued to do justice to
Rev, Hooke, Mayow, Hales, Bayen,
Priestley, and others, there would have
been little of absolute facts left for La-
voisier to claim in the way of original dis-
covery; though it would be difficult to
find adequate terms to express the obli-
gation under which the scientific world
is placed with regard to him, for his am-
ple and accurate repetition of experimen-
tal investigations, and the very luminous
and able manner in which he has digest-
ed and stated the whole mass of facts,
and applied them to theoretical results.
Combustion, as understood by modern
chemists, is the rapid combination of oxy-
gen with a body, winch is attended with in-
crease of temperature and the emission of
light. The burned body is therefore an
oxygenated compound. Thus we may
form a notion of combustion by burning
a piece of iron wire. If the diameter of
the wire be very small, such, for ex-
ample, as half the thickness of a hair,
and it be made up into a tuft like wool,
it may be lighted by a candle, and will
burn, like other more readily comb;

COMBUSTION.

ble bodies, until it has received a cer-
tain portion of oxygen, after which the
combustion will cease. If the same iron
had been exposed to the atmosphere with-
out additional heat, it would also have
attracted oxygen, but in a longer time ;
and though the result might have been
the same, we should not have called
this slow process by the name of com-
bustion.

Though the modern theory of combus-
tion is simplified by rejecting phlogiston,
and rendered more accurate by compre-
hending facts formerly unknown, yet it
must not be disguised, that it is inade-
quate to account for the great and most
striking fact, namely, the increase of
temperature, otherwise than by hypo-
thesis. Heat, or elevation of tempera-
ture, seems, in the opi nions of all philoso-
phers, to consist in the agitation of the
particles of something, whether we sup-
pose that thing to be the body itself, or a
peculiar element called caloric. Accord-
ing to those philosophers who assert
the existence of this last principle, the
combination of oxygen and the combusti-
ble body does emit or give out caloric,
either because there is less room for it in
the new compound, of which the capa-
city is changed, according to Dr. Irvine's
doctrine; or because a portion of caloric,
which was before latent, or combined in
one or both of the component parts, is,
according to Black, given out in conse-
quence of the resulting attraction of the
new compound for it being less than be-
fore. They, who are disposed to see this
subject treated at length, may consult
the system of the ingenious Fourcroy,
where they will find the modern caloric
affording the same general services to
chemical hypothesis, as were formerly
obtained from its predecessor, phlogis-
ton.

Notwithstanding the truly valuable and
numerous discoveries of facts by Black,
Irvine, Crawford, and other modern philo-
sophers, we are furfrom being in posses-
sion of proof, that elevation of tempera-
ture is universally occasioned by diminu-
tion of capacity, or the extrication of
latent heat. But, as we arc upon the
whole more habituated to consider bodies
themselves, than their properties in the
abstract, a preference has been given to
the method of ascribing events to pecu-
liar additional substances, rather than to
motions or modifications of the bodies in
which they may take place. Many emi-
nent philosophers have,nevertheless,con-
sidered heat as a motion in the particles

themselves ; but it is not so easy to specu-
late upon the principles of motion among
a system of particles, as it is to assert the
combination and disengagement of a
chemical element, though this assertion
does not remove the difficulty, but only
places it a step farther off.

If we admit that the particles of a
body do not touch each other; as ap-
pears to be established from the differ-
ent degrees of inertia and of weight, as
well as from the expansions and contrac-
tions occasioned by change of tempera-
ture, and other causes ; and if we like-
wise consider the particles as attracting
each other, — it appears to follow by ana-
logy, from what we know of the rest of
the universe, that they^must be kept asun-
der by motion. From this inference we
shall be led to consider natural masses
as distinct systems of revolving particles;
comparable with those nebulae which oc-
cupy the celestial spaces, and of which
the parts are, no doubt, governed by
cometary and planetary revolutions. It
is much to be regretted, that the mathe-
matical consideration of this subject by
Mr. Buee, in a work announced in
Nicholson's Journal, vol. iii. p. 234, quar-
to series, has not yet been laid before the
public.

The ordinary appearances of bodies in
a state of combustion may be explained,
in a general way, by attending to the state
of the bodies which undergo it. If the
parts of an ignited body, such as that
of a piece of charcoal, become oxygena-
ted, previous to or at the very instant
of their separation from the mass, there
will be no appearance of light but at the
surface of the burning body ; but if small
parts of the body be separated from the
general mass, during the very process of
combustion, and before it is completed,
as happens mechanically when the par-
ticles of iron are torn off by the action
of a dry grindstone, or chemically when
the particles of fat rise in vapour from
the wick of a lighted candle, a burning
mass will be seen, variable in its figure,
which, in the latter case, is called flame.
And that this explanation accounts for
the flame of burning bodi'. s is manifest-
ed, from the little difference, between the
two phenomena here mentioned, and the
still less difference between the results,
namely flame, which are produced by
projecting the dust of rosin, or a stream
of hydrogen, through the flame of a
candle.

According to the theory which sup-
poses caloric to be an independent sub-

COM

stance, combustion must be a rapid union
of oxygen with a combustible body; and
the heat has been supposed to be given
out from the oxygen during1 a condensa-
tion of this last, which, it is imagined,
takes place universally in this process.
This, however, has not been proved.

Dr. Thomson, considering caloric and
light as distinct substances, has adduced
many facts and observations, to prove,
that as caloric abounds in oxygen, so
light is a component part of every com-
bustible. And thence, according to his
doctrine, while the base of oxygen
combines with the base of the combusti-
ble, the caloric of the one and the light
of the other unite in the form of fire.
From this theory he shows why, in the
transitions of oxygen from one combusti-
ble base to another, the act of combustion
does not take place ; namely, because the
caloric of the oxygen has no light pre-
sented to it lo combine with. The whole
tloctrine, though undoubtedly requiring
further developement and proof, is enti-
tled to the greatest attention of chemists.
See CALOKIC, CAPACITY, CHKMISTRT,
HEAT.

COMBUSTION of living individuals of the
human species. Citizen Lair, in 1797, com-
municated to the Philomathic Society at
Paris, a memoir on the spontaneous com-
bustion of human individuals, of which in-
stances are related in the Copenhagen
Acts of 1692; the Annual Register, 1763
and 1775 : the Philosophical Transac-
tions, 1744 ; the Observations of Le Cat,
1729 and 1749 ; and the Journal de Me-
decine for 1779 and 1783 : and to these
he has added some others related by per-
sons living at Caen, and on the testimony
of a surgeon of the same town, who at-
tested the circumstances of an event of
this description by a verbal process.

Difficulties would no doubt be offered
for reasoning against these facts; but
the writer remarks, that human testimo-
ny is not to be rejected, unless the pro-
bability that the facts must be impossible
shall be greater than that arising from the
concurrence of evidence ; and he adds,
that the narratives, though varying so
widely as to time and place, do very re-
markably agree in their tenor. The cir-
cumstances are, that (1) the combustion
has usually detroyed the person, by re-
ducing the body to a mass of pulverulent
fatty matter, resembling ashes. 2. There
were no signs of combustion in surround-
ing bodies, by which it could be occasion-
ed, as these were little if at all injured;
1 hough (3) the combustion did not seem
to be so perfectly spontaneous, but that

some slight cause, such as the fire of a
pipe, or a taper, or a candle, seems to
have began it. 4. The persons were ge-
nerally much addicted to the use of spi-
ritous liquors; were very fat ; inmost in-
stances women ; and old. 5. The extre-
mities, such as the legs, hands, or crani-
um, escaped the fire. 6. Water, instead
of extinguishing the fire, gave it more ac-
tivity, as happens when fat is burned. 7.
The residue was oily and fetid ashes, with
a greasy soot, of a very penetrating and
disagreeable smell.

The theory of the author may be con-
sidered as hypothetical, until maturer ob-
servations shall throw more light on the
subject. The principal factis, that char-
coal and oil, or fat, are known in some in-
stances to take fire spontaneously, and
he supposes the carbon of the alcohol to
be deposited in the fat parts of the hu-
man system, and to produce this effect.

COMEDY, a dramatic poem, represent-
ing some event in common life, which is
supposed to take place among private in-
dividuals. Its object is to ridicule the
vices and follies of mankind.

The unities of action, time and place,
the division of the acts, the introduction
of episodes,the intermixture of the scenes,
are common to both tragedy and comedy.
But in other essentials they differ : the
one inspires terror and pity ; the other
excites gaiety and mirth. The characters
in tragedy are, kings, princes, tyrants,
heroes ; those in comedy are, ridiculoiib
people of quality, cits, valets, gossips,
&c. The style also ,of the latter has its
peculiar characteristics ; it should be
simple, lively, familiar, and replete with
sallies of wit, satire, and genuine humour.

As almost all the rules of dramatic poe-
try are constructed with a view to
strengthen the resemblance of fiction to
reality, they ought in comedy to be most
minutely attended to ; because, as the
scenes it represents bear a nearer affinity
to real life, any defect in the resemblance
is more readily discovered. Hence the
necessity of truth in the delineation of
character, of simplicity in the texture of
the intrigue, of spirit and consistency in
the dialogue, and of genuine nature in
the sentiments. Hence, too, that grand
requisite, the art of concealing art, in ma-
naging the progressive intricacy of the
plot, which constitutes the illusion of
theatrical representations. The intrigue
of comedy does not consist in the con-
struction of a fable barely probable, but
in a natural series of familiar events, de-
veloped in the most clear and impressive
way. It may be of use, therefore, to trace

COMEDY.

the rise and progress of comedy, with its
various revolutions, in order to examine
the principles on which those rules are
founded, and to point out their various
applications.

On the waggo n of Thesp is, comedy was
a mere tissue of ribaldry, uttered to the
passing- multitude by vintagers, with their
faces stained with wine-lees. After the
example of the Sicilian poets Epicoharmus
and Phormis, Crates gave it a more regu-
lar form, and raised it to a more appro-
priate stage. Comedy then took for its
model the tragedy invented by JEschy-
lus, or rather both were founded on the
poems of Homer. This epocli is, pro-
perly speaking, the origin of comedy
among the Greeks ; they divided it into
the old, the middle, and the new. The
Athenian comedians at first produced sa-
tires in action, that is to say, they repre-
sented characters known and named,
whose follies and vices they imitated.
This was the old comedy.

To repress this licence, the laws for-
bad the mention of names. Neither the
malignity of the poets, however, nor that
of the spectators, lost any thing by this
interdict. The resemblance of masks,
dress, and gesture, designated public
characters so well, that they were recog-
nized at sight. Thus, in the middle co-
medy, the poet, having no longer to dread
the reproacn of personality, was embold-
ened in his satirical attacks ; at the same
time he was doubly sure of applause ; for,
while feeding the malice of his audience
by the blackness of his portraits, he af-
forded their vanity the gratification of
guessing his originals. It was in these
two pieces that Aristophanes so often
triumphed, to the shame of the Athe-
nians.

Satirical comedy presented at first
view many appearances of advantage.
There are vices, against which the institu-
tions of a state provide no punishment.
Self-interestedness, or incapacity in the
administration of public affairs, ingrati-
tude, infidelity, breach of promise, the
tacit and artful usurpation of the merit of
another — all these escape the severity of
law. Satirical comedy assigned to them
a punishment the more terrible, as it was
inflicted in a public theatre. There the
guilty were arraigned, and the people sat
in judgment. It was doubtless to main-
tain so salutary a species of terror, that
the first satirical poets were not only to-
lerated, but even hired by the magistracy,
as censors of the republic. Even Plato
was led away by this apparent advantage,
when he admitted Aristophanes into his
VOL. Hi

banquet : if, indeed, the Athenian sati-
rist, and the Aristophanes of the banquet,
are one and the same person, which may
at least be fairly doubted.

Such was the state of comedy at Athens,
when her two great tragic poets acquired
the glory of rendering virtue interesting,
and crime odious, by the most affecting
and terrible pictures. How singular, that
the same people should delight in exhi-
bitions so opposite and contrasted ! the
heroes of Sophocles and Euripides were
no more, but the sage calumniated by
Aristophanes was still living. The Athe-
nians could applaud with enthusiasm the
great men of former days, while at the
same time they could behold with satis-
faction their wisest philosopher exposed
to contempt and ridicule.

The government, too late, perceived
that the poets had eluded, in what was
called middle comedy, the law which for-
bad the mention of names ; they enact-
ed another, which banished from the stage
all personal imitation, and restricted co-
medy to the general representation of
manners. This was the aera of new co-
medy : it ceased to be a direct satire,
and assumed the legitimate and classical
form which it has since preserved. Me-
nander shone in this department ; a poet
as elegant and natural as Aristophanes
was the reverse. We cannot but deeply
regret the loss of his works, when we
read the eulogies which Plutarch, in
common with all the ancients, has pro-
nounced on them.

But it is easier to copy what is gross
and low, than what is refined and noble ;
hence the first Latin poets chose Aristo-
phanes for their model. Of this number
was Plautus, who, notwithstanding, does
not resemble him. Terence, who carne
after Plautus, imitated Menander, with-
out equalling him ; Caesar used to call
him a demi-Menander, and reproached
him with his want of the vis comica, by
which is meant those master-strokes
which fathom characters, which dive
into the inmost recesses ot the soul, and
expose its hidden vices to public derision
and shame.

Plautus excels in gaiety, strength,. ?nd
variety : Terence in truth, delicacy, and
elegance: the one has the advantage of
imagination, unrestrained by the rv.lfts of
art over talents subjected to all those
rules ; the Other has the merit of uniting
sprightliness with decency, politeness
with pleasantry, and exactness with ease ;
the one amuses by the matter, the other
by the style ; and we wish Plautus had

L 1

COMEDY.

the refinement of Terence, and Terence
the humour of Plautus.

The modifications of comedy in its first
stages, and the varieties observable in it
at the present day, all originate in the
predominating character of each particu-
lar people, and in their respective forms
of government. Thus, in a democratical
state, the administration of government,
and the conduct of the leading men, be-
ing the chief objects of animadversion
and censure, the Athenian people, ever
discontented and restless, delighted in
theatrical satires, which exposed not only
the vices of individuals, but the concerns
of government, the prevarications of ora-
tors, the faults of generals, and even their
own facility to be duped and corrupted.
Hence their applause at the political sa-
tires of Aristophanes. This licence was
repressed as the government grew less
popular, as may be seen in the later co-
medies of that author, and in what ves-
tige remains of those of Menander In
these the state was always respected, and
private intrigues were substituted for
public cabals.

The Romans under the consuls, as
jealous of liberty as the Athenians, but
more jealous of the dignity of their go-
vernment, never suffered the republic to
be exposed to the shafts of poetic ridi-
cule : hence their first comic authors ven-
tured upon personal, but never upon po-
litical, satire.

The low popular comedy was always
freely tolerated, and the comedy of Gre-
cian manners, called Palliata, enjoyed
equal indulgence ; .but when the nobles
of Rome were introduced on the stage,
as in the pieces called Practextze and
Togatze, the action was more restrain-
ed, and ridicule was banished. This
style, as Seneca observes, holds a middle
rank between comedy and tragedy. But
as luxury gradually softened the man-
ners of Rome, comedy lost its keenness
and severity; and the Romans, having im-
bibed the vices of the Greeks, Terence,
to pourtray them, had only to copy Me-
nander.

The same influence of public taste and
political institutions has determined the
character of comedy in every nation in
Europe, since the revival of letters. A
nation, which once affected a proud so-
lemnity of manners, and a romantic pride
of sentiment, formed the model of its
drama or intrigues full of incident, and on
characters replete with hyperbole. Such
is the Spanish theatre, their dramatic au-
thors display a forced exaggeration, and
a freedom of imagination, which violates

all rules. Yet with these faults, added to
a fondness for puerile conceits, and far
fetched equivoques, Lope de Vega has
attained to the first rank among modern
poets. He unites the happiest discrimi-
nation of character to a strength of in-
vention, which even Corneille could ad-
mire. He took from Lope the character
of his Menteur, and he declares he
would have given two of his best pieces
to have imagined it.

The Italian comedy is strongly indica-
tive of the disposition of the people.
Points of honour, amours, revenge for
falsehood in affairs of gallantry, furnish
abundance of perilous intrigues for lo-
vers, and of endless play for the coque-
tries of valets and waiting women. The
rage of pantomime and caricature is con-
spicuous in all the comedies of the Ita-
lians, and they indulge it at the expense
of their better judgment. Their plots
are devoid of ingenuity, sense, and wit.
There is hardly one among the immense
collections of their pieces, which a man
of taste would bear to read to the end.
Indeed, the Italians at last began to be
sensible of this, and Florence set the ex-
ample of substituting for these miserable
farces the best comedies of Moliere
translated into Italian. Other states fol-
lowed the example, and in all probability
the French comedy will soon become ge-
neral in Italy.

A nation, formerly counted the first in
politeness and refinement, when every
individual made it a duty to conform his
sentiments and ideas to the manners of
society, when prejudices were princi-
ples, and usages laws ; this nation could
afford few originals, its characters were
softened by deference, and its vices pal-
liated by good-breeding. The French
comedy has, however, served to improve
the English stage as much as the differ-
ence of manners would allow. Moliere
is certainly a just model of comic excel-
lence : he possesses that philosophic
penetration, which seizes extremes as
well as their intermediate degrees, and
that power of contrast, which gives force
to his painting, which the delicacy of his
pencil might otherwise have lost.

In a country like ours, where every in-
dividual glories in his privilege of think-
ing for himself, originals must always
abound. Hence the English comedy ex-
cels all others in|strength of character,
and in the true expression of nature : it
is simple, consistent, and philosophical.
The genius of Shakespeare has been con-
sidered by some as most happy in come-
dy ; the truth is, that in every depart-

COM

ment of the drama he is supreme. Clouds
and mists may at times obscure him, but
he is still the sun of the poetic hemi-
sphere, and all other luminaries before
his splendour must dwindle to the mag-
nitude of stars.

The plays of his contemporary, Jon-
son, though antiquated and obsolete,
contain sallies of the finest satire, and
strokes of genuine comic humour. Those
of Fletcher and Massinger, and of other
poets of that age, had the merit of con-
tributing to the advancement of our dra-
ma, and laid the foundation of its present
excellence.

After a dark period of puritanical
fanaticism, the English comedy revived
in the reign of Charles IF. ; but the stage
was but too faithful a mirror of his licen-
tious court. The comedies of Dryden
are tinged with this alloy ; indeed, in
other respects, they add little honour
to the name of that poet. Those of Ot-
way are too obscene to be acted, or
even read. The comic muse of Con-
greve has been equally blamed for licen-
tiousness and for exuberance of wit The
latter reproach may perhaps justly apply
to the best comic productions of the pre-
sent age.

Comedy has been divided into three
kinds, according to the ends which it
proposes. By pourtraying vice, it ren-
ders it contemptible, as tragedy renders
crime odious : this is characteristic come-
dy. < When men are represented as the
sport of fortune, it is called incidental
comedy. When the domestic virtues
are drawn in amiable colours, and in si-
tuations where misfortune renders them
interesting, it may be termed sentimental
comedy.

The firat of these is the most useful to
manners, and at the same time the strong-
est, the most difficult, and of course the
rarest. It traces vice to its source ; it at-
tacks it in its principle ; it presents the
mirror to mankind, and makes them
blush at their own image. Hence it sup-
poses in its author a consummate know-
ledge of human nature, a prompt and ac-
curate discernment, and a vigour of fancy,
which seizes at once what penetration
could not comprehend in detail.

Incidental comedy is perhaps the most
successful and popular, as it keeps the
attention continually awake by lively and
unexpected changes, and as it furnishes
a source of amusement and mirth, when
the sallies of wit might fail in their effect
by too frequent recurrence, if not reliev-
ed by such aid.

Sentimental comedy is perhaps more
useful to morals than even tragedy, as it
excites a deeper interest, because the
examples it holds forth affect us more
nearly. But as the style of comedy can
neither be sustained by the grandeur of
objects, nor animated by the strength of
incident and situation, as it should be at
the same time familiar and interesting,
there are two different extremes to be
avoided — of being cold, and of being ro-
mantic. Simple nature is the true mid-
dle path, and it is the highest effort of
art to be at the sam.e time artful and na-
tural.

A style of comedy superior to these is
that which unites characteristic with in-
cidental comedy. Here the characters are
involved by the foibles of the mind and
the vices of the heart in the most humi-
liating cross purposes, which expose
them to the laughter and contempt of
the audience. A happier specimen of
this style could not be found than in the
School for Scandal.

Such are the three kinds of comedy.
There are^ others, which we have pur-
posely omitted to enumerate. First,
that obscene comedy, which is no longer
suffered on the stage but by a sort of
prescription, and which cannot excite a
smile without raising a blush; secondly,
that drama of false sentiment, the off-
spring of the German school, which once
threatened to destroy our taste for ge-
nuine comedy, but which has now hap-
pily passed into oblivion ; and, lastly, that
comedy of low fun and pantoraine trick,
the feeble resource of minds without
genius, talent, or taste, which it is the
disgrace of the British stage of the pre-
sent day to bring forward, and the re-
proach of the Hritisu public to tolerate
and encourage.

COMKT. See ASTRONOMF.

COMETAUIUM, a curious machine,
exhibiting aji idea of the revolution of a
comet about the sun. It is contrived in
such a manner, as by elliptical wheels to
shew the unequal motion of a comet in
every part of its orbit. The comet is re-
presented by a small brass ball, carried
by a wire, in an elliptic groove, about the
sun in une of its foci, and the years of its
period are shewn by an index moving
with an equable motion over a graduated
silver circle.

COMETES, in botany, a genus of
the Tetrandria Monogynia class ami or-
der. Natural order of Tricoccae. Es-
sential character : involucre four-leav-
ed, three-flowered ; calyx four-leaved ;

COM

capsule tricoccous. One species, viz.
C. alterniflora, an annual, and a native of
Suratte.

COMMA, among grammarians, a point
or character marked thus (,), serving to
denote a short stop, and to divide the
members of a period.

COMMANDANT, in the army, is
that person who has the command of
a garrison, fort, castle, regiment, compa-
ny. &c.

COMMANDER, in the navy, an officer
who has the command of a ship of war un-
der 20 guns, a sloop of war, armed ship,
or bomb- vessel. He is entitled Master
and Commander, and ranks with a Major
of the army.

COMTTASTDER in Chief, is the chief
Admiral In any port, or on any sta-
tion, appointed to hold the command
over all other admirals within that juris-
diction.

COMMELINA, in botany, so called in
honour of John and Casper Comelins,
two famous Dutch botanists, a genus of
the Triandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Ensatae. Junci, Jussieu.
Essential character : corolla six-petalled ;
nectaries three, cross-shaped, pedicelled.
There are twelve species, natives of warm
climates.

COMMENDAM, in the ecclesiastical
law, the trust or administration of the
revenues of a benefice, given either to a
layman to hold, by way of depositum,
for six months, in order to repairs, &c.
or to an ecclesiastic, or beneficed person,
to perform the pastoral duties thereof,
till once the benefice is provided with a
regular incumbent.

Commendams were formerly a very lau-
dable institution: for when an elective be-
nefice became vacant, for which the ordi-
nary could not, for some reason, immedi-
ately provide, the care of it was recom-
mended to some man of merit, who took
upon him the direction of it till the vacan-
cy was filled up, but enjoyed none of the
profits.

At length it became a maxim among
the canonists, that a clerk might hold two
benefices, the one titular, and the other in
commendam : yet still the commendam
was to continue only till other provisions
were made ; and afterwards they began
to be given for a determinate time.

COMMENSURABLE, among geome-
tricians, an appellation given to such quan-
tities as are measured by one and the same
common measure.

COMMENSURABLE 7zum6er5,.whether inte-
gers or fractions, are such as can be mea-

sured or divided by some other number,
without any remainder : such are 12 and
18, as bemg measured by 6 or 3.

COMMERCE, the exchange of the na-
tural or artificial productions of a country
for those of another, either by barter or by
representative signs of their value : the
most general representative of the value
of other commodities being coin or bullion,
the profits of commerce are frequently es-
timated by the quantity of money it brings
into a country ; but a very beneficial fo-
reign trade muy be carried on without any
balance being payable in money, or the
balance may be absorbed by payments on
other accounts. The commerce of Great
Britain has long been in a very flourish-
ing state, and has become of unparalleled
extent, but the quantity of coin and bul-
lion in the country has not increased in
any considerable degree.

Commerce, in a general point of view,
is usually distinguished into two kinds,
the commerce of import and of export ;
but there is little reason for this distinc-
tion, for whatever a nation imports, it
must have paid an equivalent for to the
country of which it is purchased, and
consequently the two branches are inti-
mately dependent, and could not exist
separately for any considerable period.

The value obtained in foreign markets,
for the goods or manufactures which a
nation exports, repays the labour of pro-
curing or manufacturing them, with a
profit to the master manufacturer and to
the exporting merchant ; and this value
being invested in foreign produce, which
on importation affords a further profit to
the merchant, it is evident that the trans-
action, while it supports individuals,
makes a real addition to the wealth of the
country, by the greater value of the re-
turns imported beyond that of the goods
exported. Commerce, therefore, while it
is the means of procuring a mutual inter-
change of conveniencies between distant
countries, and of extending knowledge
and civilization over every part of the
globe, contributes essentially to the
strength and influence of the countries
by which it is encouraged.

Superficial views on subjects of politi-
cal economy have inclined princes and
statesmen to the opinions, that wealth
consisted principally in gold and silver,
and that those metals could be brought
into a country which had no mines only
by the balance of trade, or by exporting
to a greater value than it imported ; com-
merce has therefore experienced public
encouragement, and, agreeable to the

COMMERCE.

principles on which its value has been
estimated, the principal regulations have
consisted in restraints upon importation,
and encouragements to exportation. The
duties and restrictions imposed by one
country, either with the view of encourag-
ing1 its trade and manufactures, or for the
purpose of rendering commerce a source
of public revenue, have, however, only
created similar returns from other states,
and the commerce of Europe has become
a complicated system of high duties,
drawbacks, prohibitions, and bounties,
attended with much unnecessary expense,
and holding out continual temptations to
fraud and evasion. The impolicy and
injustice of many of the existing restraints
has been shewn by Dr. Adam Smith and
others, and the prevalence of just sen-
timents of the reciprocal advantages of
freedom of trade will render future com-
mercial arrangements more liberal and
beneficial.

Commercial intercourse wasone of the
earliest effects of the progress of civiliza-
tion, but it was not till the gradual im-
provement of navigation had lessened
the dangers of long voyages, that distant
nations were enabled to exchange their
surplus produce, and to enjoy the conve-
niencies and luxuries of foreign climes.
The Egyptians, at a very early period,
opened a trade with the western coast
of the continent of India ; but the Pheni-
cians and the Carthaginians carried com-
merce to a much greater extent, the
trading voyages of the latter extending
not only to all the coasts of Spain and
Gaul, b-.it even to Britain. The commerce
of the Greeks was confined to the ports
of the Mediterranean till the foundation
of Alexandria, which soon acquired the
greater part of the trade with India, and
became for a time the first commercial
city in the world. The extent of the
Roman empire, and the spirit of its gov-
ernment, gave facility and security to
commercial transactions, and rendered
Rome the metropolis of the commercial
world till the fourth century, when the
sea* of empire was removed to Constan-
tinople, which was thus made the empo-
rium of commerce. Here it continued
to flourish, even when the devastations of
the Goths and Vandals had annihilated
commercial intercourse in almost every
other part of Europe, and a considera-
ble trade with India was kept up, al-
though, after the conquest of Egypt by
the Arabians, it could only be carried on
by a very tedious and difficult channel of
conveyance.

The inhabitants of Italy who fled to
the islands of the Adriatic, and founded
the city of Venice, were led by their
situation to the pursuit of commerce,
which they carried on with success, and
in no very great length of time became
almost the sole carriers of the East Indian
merchandize brought to Alexandria,
vrhich their vessels distributed to all
parts of Europe. The example of Venice
led to the cultivation of commerce at
Genoa, Florence, Pisa, and other cities
of Italy, which for several centuries were
the only places in Europe that carried on
any considerable foreign trade. The in-
security of property, during the unsettled
state of Europe which succeeded the
destruction of the western empire, caus-
ed an almost general suspension of com-
mercial intercourse till the time of Char-
lemagne, whose extensive empire facili-
tated correspondence between different
parts of Europe, which had before little
connection, while the establishment of
Christianity in Germany contributed to
the increase of cities and towns in the
north of Europe, and introduced an ac-
quaintance with the productions of more
southern climates.

The encouragement given to manufac-
tures in Flanders, and their consequent
improvement,drew the merchants of other
countries to the fairs and markets estab-
lished at Bruges, Courtray, and many
other towns, which thus became of consi-
derable importance, while a taste for the
productions of the East was spreading
through almost every part of Europe, ac-
quired in Palestine during the crusades,
and contributing very materially to the
encouragement offoreign trade. The pro-
ductions of India were, however, obtained
at great risk and expense, till the improve-
ment of navigation, by the invention of the
mariner's compass, and the subsequent
discovery of a passage to India by the
Cape of Good Hope. This was soon fol-
lowed by the still more important discove-
ry of the West Indies, and the continent
of America, events which filled Europe
with astonishment, and opened a vast field
for speculative and commercial enter-
prize. Spain and Portugal attempted to
monopolize the benefits of the discovery
of America, but their injudicious policy
has rendered them little more than the
channels, through which the profits of
this trade have been conveyed to more
industrious states.

The establishment of English colonies
in North America,the improvement of ma-
nufactures in Flanders, Holland, France,

COMMERCE.

and England, the encouragement of navi-
gation, the institution of public banks,and
the more general practice of insurance, fa-
voured the extension of commerce, suppli-
ed it with new materials, and rendered it
more secure. It has been protected, m all
the states of Europe, by numerous laws
and edicts ; it has been encouraged by
bounties and privileges, and commercial
treaties have been formed between differ-
ent nations for removing impediments,
and facilitating a mutually benehcial in-
tercourse. The commerce of Europe has
thus expanded in a degree of which form-
er times could have no idea, and while it
has multiplied the luxuries and refine-
ments of society, it has contributed essen-
tially to the advancement of naval power,
and been rendered by most states a fruit-
ful source of public revenue.

COMMKHCE of Great Britain. The un-
manufactured commodities exported by
England, for many centuries before the*
woollen manufacture had made any pro-
gress, were sufficient to procure the few
foreign articles then in request, and also
to bung a yearly balance of cash, by
which some other branches of foreign
trade were carried on to a small extent,
and a beginning was made to the ac-
quirement of commercial capital. The
foreign trade of this country was,however,
in its infancy, almost wholly in the hands
of foreigners, who settled m London, and
a few other ports, for the purpose of car-
rying on commerce with their respective
countries; many of these merchants were
Jews, whose profits must have been very
considerable, to induce them to submit
to the impositions to which they were
frequently exposed. By degrees some
of the inhabitants of London, and of the
ports lying opposite to France and Flan-
ders, began to build ships of their own,
and to. enter into competition with the
alien merchants.

In the reign of Edward III. the exports
of England consisted chiefly of wool,skins,
hides, leather, butter, tin, and lead, of
which wool was by far the most conside-
rable, the quantity amounting to about
30,000 sacks of 26 stone each in a year.
From a record in the Exchequer it ap-
pears, that in 1354 the exports of Eng-
land amounted to 294,184/. 17s. 2d. the
imports to 38,970A 3s. 6d. money of that
time. This is a great balance, consider-
ing that it arose almost wholly from the
exportation of wool and other raw mate-
rials; but it is not very probable that the
excess of the exports was usually so
great as in this particular year. It was

not till the middle of this century that the-
English began to extend their commer-
cial voyages to the Baltic ; nor till the
middle of the subsequent century that
they sailed to the Mediterranean.

The.improvement of the woollen manu-
facture greatly increased the value of the
exports, as France had not then engaged
in this manufacture, ana Holland had not
carried it to any considerable extent ; so
that England enjoyed almost a monopoly
of that manufacture, for the supply of the
north and west parts of Europe, before
the year 164u, Spain and Portugal being
then almost entirely supplied from this
country with light draperies, as well for
their home consumption, as for that of
their extensive colonies, from whence, in
return, we then received sugar, tobacco,
drugs, and other commodities, with which
we are now supplied by our own colo-
nies. In 1672 the Parliament repealed
the duties payable by aliens on the ex-
portation of the native commodities and
manufactures of England, putting them
in this respect on a level with English
subjects. This salutary principle was
further extended in IfOO, by removing
the duties on every kind of woollen goods
and on all kinds of corn, grain, and meal,
exported. Many subsequent events, as
the establishment of the credit of the
Bank, the union with Scotland, the conso-
lidation of the two East Indian Companies,
and the rapid improvement of the North
American colonies.contributed materially
to the advancement of the commerce of
Great Britain : and Mr. Erasmus Philips,
in his " State of the Nation in respect to
her Commerce, &c." makes " the balance
of England's trade,one year with another,
to have been in our favour, on an average,
or medium, 2,881, 357/. from 1702 to 1712."
This appears to have been somewhat be-
yond the truth, but it is certain that fo-
reign trade was then gradually increas-
ing, and it was greatly promoted by an
act passed in 1722, for extending the
principle which had been adopted with
respect to woollen goods, by permitting-
the exportation, duty free, of all mer-
chandize, the produce of Great Britain,
(except a few particular articles) and the
importation, duty free, of the materials
for dying, essential to several manufac-
tures.

From this period, the encouragement
given to the fisheries in different parts,
the increased cultivation of the West In-
dia islands, and the immense acquisitions
of territory in the East Indies, have com-
bined, with the increasing wealth and po*

COMMERCE.

pulation of Great Britain, to extend its
commercial transactions in all directions,
ana greatly to augment their former mag-
nitude. The gr^at increase of the nation-
al expenditure has caused most articles of
foreign produce to be burthened with a
variety of heavy duties, and subjected
•commerce to numerous restrictions and
impediments ; yet, under these disadvan-
tages, it has of late years increased in an
anparalleled degree, and in the year end-
ing 5th January, 1807, produced a net re-
venue to government from the duties of
customs, amounting to 7,774,0491. 4s. 9d.
This large contribution from foreign trade

evinces its present magnitude ; but its to-
tal amount, as well as that of its several
branches, will be more particularly shewn
from the Custom-house accounts of the
value of the commodities exported and
imported. These accounts being formed
according to the rates established in the
year 1696, which, in most instances, are
greatly below the present value of the arti-
cles, certainly give an adequate idea of the
magnitude of the commerce of Great
Britain ; but this very circumstance ren-
ders them in a comparative view the
more indisputable evidence of its in-
crease.

Total Official value of the Imports and Exports of Great Britain, in the year 1805

Imports. Exports.

Denmark and Norway £1,071,479 - - - - Z5,l?2,066

Russia - 2,527,078 .... 1,646,475

Sweden 269,161 .... 159,597

Poland 429,450 .... 80,500

Prussia 1,790,781 .... 5,520,072

Germany 319,444 .... 2,180,784

Holland 726,264 ... - 418,801

Flanders 3,070 .... 23,343

France 469,820 .... 551

Portugal and Madeira 936,500 .... 1,495,814

Spain and Canaries 916,165- - - . 111,380

Streights and Gibraltar 42,919- - - - 183,823

Italy 393,517 .... 507,535

Malta 9,304 .... 127,514

Turkey 103,590 .... 135,410

Ireland 3,010,609 .... 3,758,973

Isle of Man 21,697 .... 62,431

Guernsey, Jersey, &c. 81,241 .... 198,324

Greenland 261,086 .... 952

Total of Europe .... 13,383,275- - - - 21,784,345

America and West Indies .... 9,115,161 .... 12,163,917

Asia 6,072,160 .... 1,638,600

New Holland - 153 - - - - 30,643

Africa 105,976 .... 980,789

Sierra Leone -------- 867 - - - - 10,660

Total

£29, 17?, 592

£36,608,954

The commerce of Great Britain with
the countries surrounding the Baltic has
always been deemed of much importance,
as b^ing the principal means of procuring
the stores necessary for the maintenance
of its navy. The capital employed in this
branch of trade must be much greater
than formerly, from the increased price of
hemp, iron, masts, and timber of all
kinds, pitch, tar, and the other articles

of import. The returns of this eoui.
try are British manufactures of various
kinds, East India goods, and West India
produce.

The trade with Germany experienced a
great augmentation about the year 1794,,
when it became the channel through
which Holland, France, and other parts
of the Continent, obtained the goods,
which, in times of peace, they had usually

COMMERCE.

imported direct from Great Britain. The
port of Hamburgh for a time possessed
he principal share of the of trade Europe,
but the unusual flow of business in this
direction encouraged a spirit of adven-
ture and speculation, which in 1799 pro-
duced great embarrassment, involving
not only the merchants of Hamburgh,
but also some of the most considerable
houses in Bremen, Frankfort, Amsterdam,
and London. The trade with Germany,
however, continued of great importance,
till the influence of France obliged them
to break ofi their intercourse with this
country.

The trade with Holland and Flanders,
one of the most ancient branches 01 the
commerce of this country, has not in-
creased in proportion with the trade to
other parts : it is, however, still conside-
rable in time of peace. The total value
of the exports to Holland in 1792 was
1,516,449Z., in 1802 they amounted to
4,957,99/7.

France, enjoying great natural advan-
tages, and having for a long time many
colonial possessions, had not occasion to
receive much merchandize from this
country. The frequent hostilities be-
tween the two countries has likewise pre-
vented the formation of permanent com-
mercial connections, but some intercourse
of this kind always subsisted even in time
of war, particularly with the ports of Ca-
lais, Bourdeaux, Havre, and Rouen, till
the reign of Bonaparte, who resorted to
a new mode of warfare, by prohibiting all
intercourse whatever with Great Britain,
even through the intervention of neutral
vessels.

The commerce with Spain and Portu-
gal has not ot late years been of great ex-
tent ; the export to the latter country,
however, consisting almost wholly of Bri-
tish produce and manufactures, has ge-
neraily been considered a valuable branch
of foreign trade, and measures have been
frequently adopted for its preservation.
In j 801, when Portugal was threatened
with invasion, the wines of that country
were allowed to be imported and ware-
housed, on bond being given for the pay-
ment of the duty when taken out for
consumption. The removal of the go-
vernment to the Brazils, and subjugation
of the country by the French, mwst
cause a great revolution in this branch of
trade.

The Mediterranean trade suffered
great interruption from the war which
began in 1793 ; and in the war of 1803,
it was reduced to little more than the

supply of the islands of Sicily and Mal-
ta.

The exports to the coast of Africa
must experience a considerable diminu-
tion from the abolition of the slave trade,
till a more reputable species of traffic is
cultivated with the inhabitants of that
extensive continent, who will be induced
to furnish a greater quantity of their na-
tive commodities, in order to procure the
cheap manufactures and luxuries to which
they have been accustomed.

The East India trade has always been
deemed very lucrative; but from the risks
of such a distant voyage, the necessity of
a large capital, and other circumstances,
most ot the states of Europe have deem-
ed it expedient to vest this trade in the
hands of an exclusive company. From
about the year 1750, the mercantile con-
cerns oi the English East India Company
have become blended with tiie revenues
derived from the territorial possessions
which they have acquired in India, and
which have been augmented to an im-
mense extent, as the nett amount of these
revenues, as well as the fortunes acquir-
ed by their officers and servants, are in-
vested in merchandise, in order to be re-
mitted to Great Britain. The imports of
the Company have therefore increased
very considerably, and in the year IV 97,
Mr. Irving, the inspector general of im-
ports and exports, gave his opinion, that,
including the private trade of individuals,
carried on through the medium of the
Company, and the proceeds of the terri-
torial revenues, Great Britain derived an
actual profit from the East India trade of
about ^,300,000/. per annum. The prin-
cipal articles, imported from the East In-
dies are,%from China, teas, nankeen cloths,
and raw silk ; from Bengal, piece goods of
various kinds, raw siik, pepper, saltpetre,
spices, drugs, sugar, coffee, &,c. The to-
tal value of all the goods sold at the Com-
pany's sales, in the year ending 1st
March, 1806, was 8,,'81,442/.

The West India trade, in the year
1787, employed about 130,000 tons of
shipping ; and in the year 1804, above
180,000 tons, navigated by 14,000 sea-
men. In 14 years, ending 1804, the va-
lue of the imports had increased nine
millions sterling, and the revenue deriv-
ed from them had increased above three
and a half millions, including the con-
quered colonies ; but, exclusive of these,
the imports from the West Indies were
about a fourth of the whole imports of
Great Britain. This branch of trade is
however subject to great fluctuations, of

COM

which a remarkable instance has occur-
red since the year 1792. The destruc-
tion of St. Domingo, the most productive
sugar colony in the world, gave a new as-
pect to British West Indian affairs. A
yearly quantity of above 110,000 hogs-
heads being thus suddenly taken out of
the market, the prices rose to an unusual
height. The confusion which took place
in Guadaloupe soon after, and the ope-
rations of the war in the West Indies,
diminished the supply, and raised the
price of produce still further. This of
course became a great inducement to in-
crease the cultivation of the British is-
lands, and of those recently conquered,
while, about the same time, the introduc-
tion of the Bourbon cane enabled even
the bad lands of the old islands to pro-
duce plentiful crops of sugar. From
these causes the quantity of sugar has
been constantly and rapidly increasing
since 1792 ; the blank occasioned in that
year has been filled up, and a great sur-
plus has been added to the ordinary pro-
duce of former periods. The produce of
the Spanish islands during the same pe-
riod has increased rapidly. These cir-
cumstances caused a sudden decline in
the price of sugar, which became unu-
sually low in 1807, and, combined with
the interruption of the export trade to
the continent of Europe, reduced the
West India merchants and planters to
great difficulties.

The American war was regarded by
many persons as involving, in a great
measure, the ruin of the foreign com-
merce of Great Britain. Since the esta-

blishment of the independence of the
American States, however, experience
has proved that we derive a much great-
er benefit from that country than hereto-
fore, as we now take from them no more
than it is cur interest to take, while, from
having but little capital, and much em-
ployment at home, it must be many years
before they can attempt to rival us in any
considerable branch of foreign trade. The
exports to America consist almost wholly
of British manufactures, the official value
of which in the year 1800 was 6,885,507/.;
the imports are, tobacco, rice, corn, and
other unmanufactured produce. A very
considerable trade is also carried on be-
tween the United States and the British
West India islands, which is considered
as almost essential to the support of the
latter. The trade with the remaining
British possessions in *Jorth America is
not of great extent ; the principal branch-
es of it are, the fur trade of Canada,lHud-
sou's Bay, and the Newfoundland fish-
ery.

The total amount of the exports and
imports sufficiently proves, that the mer-
cantile shipping of Great Britain must be
greatly increased beyond what was em-
ployed in former periods. The total num.
her of vessels that entered inwards, and
cleared out, with their tonnage, and the
number of men and boys usually employ-
ed in navigating the same, as shewn in
the following statement for three years,
ending the 5th January, 1807, will fur-
nish a correct idea of the extent of ship-
ping employed in the commerce of Great
Britain.

INWARDS.

OUTWARDS.

Ships.

Tons.

1804

14,779

2,002,686

1805

15,931

2,186,173

1806

15,911

2,095,568

Men. I Ships.

113,723 fl 15,224
121,899 15,540

120,342 I) 15,710

Tons. Men.

2,051,135 I 124,255
2,101,030 125,332
2,054,472 124,189

By the act imposing a duty on all sea
assurances, as well as by the act for es-
tablishing the convoy duty, the extent
and value of the foreign trade of this
country has been more clearly ascertain-
ed than heretofore, and it appears that the
capital employed in commerce cannot be
less than 80,000,OGO/. The annual profit
derived from it has been variously esti-
mated, but, according to the best autho-
rity, it appeared, in the year 1797, to be
about 10,500,000/. per annum.

COMMERSONIA, in botany, so called
in memory of M. Commerson, the French
traveller, a genus of the Pentandria Pen-
tagynia. Essential character : cah x one-

VOL. in,

leafed, bearing the corolla; petals five;
nectary five-parted ; capsule five-celled,
echinate. One species, a native of Ota-
heite and the other Society Isles.

COMMISSARY, in the ecclesiastical
law, an officer of the Bishop, who exer-
cises spiritual jurisdiction in places of a
diocese so far from the episcopal see, that
the chancellor cannot call the people to
the bishop's principal consistory court,
without giving them too much inconveni-
ency.

COMMISSARY general of the musters, an
officer appointed to muster the army, as
often as the general thinks proper, in or-
der to know the strength of each regi-

COM

ment and company, to receive and in-
spect the muster rolls, and to keep an ex-
act state of the strength of the army.

COMMISSARY general of stores, an officer
in the artillery, who has the charge of all
the stores, for which he is accountable to
the office of ordnance.

COMMISSARY general of provisions, an
officer who has the inspection of the
bread and provisions of the army.

COMMISSION, in common law, the
warrant or letters patent which all per-
sons exercising jurisdiction have, to em-
power them to hear or determine any
cause or suit : as the commission of the
judges, &c. Most of the great officers,
judicial and ministerial, of the realm are
made also by commission ; by means of
commission, oaths, cognizance of fines,
answers in chancery, &c. are taken ; wit-
nesses examjned,0ffices found, &c.

COMMISSION of bankruptcy, is the com-
mission that issues from the Lord Chan-
cellor, on a person's becoming a bank-
rupt within any of the statutes, directed
to certain commissioners appointed to
examine into it, and to secure the bank-
rupt's lands and effects, for the satisfac-
tion of his creditors.

COMMISSIONERS, Lords, of the Admiralty,
are five or seven persons appointed by
the crown, for executing the office of
Lord High Admiral, to whose jurisdiction
all maritime affairs are entrusted. See
ADMIRALTY COURT.

COMMISSIONERS of the Navy, officers
appointed to superintend the affairs of
the marine, under the direction of the
Lords of the Admiralty. Their duty is
more immediately concerned in the build-
ing and repairing ships ; they have also
the appointment of certain officers.

COMMITMENT, in law, the sending
of a person charged with some crime
to prison, by warrant or order. A com-
mitment may be made by the King and
council, by the judges of the law, the
justices of peace, or other magistrates,
who have authority by the laws and
statutes of the realm so to do. Every
commitment should be made by warrant,
under the hand and seal of the party
committing, and the cause of commit-
ment is to be expressed in the warrant.
The terms of it must also require the
criminal to be kept in custody till dis-
charged according to due course of
law, &c. Wheresoever a constable OP
person may justify the arresting another
for a felony, or treason, he may justify
the sending him or bringing him to the
common gaol. But it is most advisable,
for any private person, who arrests an-

other for felony, to cause him to
brought as soon as possible before som'-
justice of peace, that he may be commit
ted or bailed by him. The privy -council
or any two of them, or a Secretary ot
State, may lawfully commit persons for
treason, and for other offences against the
state. All felons shall be committed to
the common gaol, and not elsewhere. 5
Hen. IV. c. 10. But vagrants and other
criminals, offenders, and persons charg-
ed with small offences, may, for such
offences, or for want of sureties, be com-
mitted either to the common gaol or
house of correction, as the justices in
their judgment shall think proper. 6 G.
c. 19. All persons who are apprehend-
ed for offences not bailable, and those
who neglect to offer bail for offences
which are bailable, must be committed ,-
and wheresoever a justice of peace is em-
powered to bind a person over, or to
cause him to do a certain thing-, he may
commit him, if in his presence he shall
refuse to be so bound, or do such a
thing. A commitment must be in writ-
ing, either in the name of the King, and
only tested by the person who makes it ;
or it may be made by such person in his
own name, expressing his office or au-
thority, and must be directed to the gaol-
er or keeper of the prison. The com-
mitment should contain the name and sur
name of the party committed, if known -,
if not known, it may be sufficient to de
scribe the person by his age, &c. and to
add, that he refuses to tell his name. It
ought to contain the cause, as for treason
or felony, or suspicion thereof; and also
the special nature of the felony, briefly.,
as for felony, for the death of such an one,
or for burglary, in breaking the house of
of such an one. All commitments, ground-
ed on acts of parliament, ought to be con-
formable to the method prescribed by
them. And where a statute appoints im-
prisonment, but does not limit the time,
in such case the prisoner must remain at
the discretion of the court. If the goal-
er shall refuse to receive a felon,
or take any thing for receiving him, he
shall be punished for the same by the
justices of gaol delivery. But no per-
son can justify the detaining a prisoner in
custody, out of the common gaol, unless
there be some particular reason for so
doing; as if the party should be so
dangerously ill, that it would apparently
hazard his life to send him to gaol, or
that there be evident danger of a rescue
from rebels, or the like. The sheriff' or
gaoler shall certify the commitment tc
the nest gaol delivery.

COM

COMMITMENT discharged. A person
legally committed, for a crime, certainly
appearing1 to have been done by some per-
son or other, cannot be lawfully discharg-
ed but by the king1, till he be acquitted
upon his trial, or have an ignoramus
found by the grand jury, or none shall
prosecute him, on a proclamation for that
purpose by the justices of gaol delivery.

COMMITTEE of Parliament, a certain
number of members appointed by the
House for the examination of a bill, mak-
ing report of an inquiry, process of the
house, &c. When a parliament is called,
and the speaker and members have taken
the oaths, there are committees appointed
to sit on certain days, viz. the commit-
tee of privileges and elections, of re-
ligion, of trade, &c. which are standing
committees. Sometimes the whole House
resolves itself into a committee, on which
occasion each person has a right to speak
and reply as often as he pleases, which is
not the case when a house is not in a
committee.

COMMODORE, in maritime affairs, an
officer of the British navy, commissioned
by the Lords of the Admiralty, or by an ad-
miral, to command a squadron of men of
war in chief; during which time he bears
the rank of brigadier-general in the army,
and is distinguished from the inferior
ships of his squadron by a broad red
flag, or pendant, tapering towards the
outer end, and sometimes forked. The
title Commodore is given by courtesy to
the senior captain, where three or more
ships of war are cruizing in com-
pany. The word is also used to denote
the convoy ship in a fleet of merchant-
men, who carries a light in his top, to
conduct the rest, and keep them toge-
ther.

COMMON, is a right of privilege which
one or more persons claim to take or
use, in some part or portion of that, which
another man's lands, waters, woods, 8tc.
naturally produce, without having an ab-
solute property in such lands, woods,
waters, &c.

COMMOX latv, that body of rules re-
ceived as law in England, before any sta-
tute was enacted in parliament to alter
the same.

The common law is grounded upon the
general customs of the realm, including
the law of nature, the law of God, and
the principles and maxims of law ; it is
also founded on reason, as said to be the
perfection of reason, acquired by long
study, observation, and experience, and
refined by the learned in all ages. It may

likewise be said to be the common birth-
righ t that the subject has for the safeguard
and defence not only of his goods, lands,
and revenues, but of his wife, children,
life, fame, &c. Our common law, it is
said, after the heptarchy, was collected
together into a body by divers of our an-
cient kings, who commanded that it
should be observed through the king-
dom ; and it was therefore called common
law, because it was common to the whole
nation, and before only affected certain
parts thereof, being anciently called the
sole right, that is the right of the peo-
ple.

The common law of England is, pro-
perly, the common customs of this king-
dom ; which, by length of time, have ob-
tained the force of laws. The goodness
of a custom depends upon its having been
used time out of mind; or, in the solem-
nity of our legal phrase, time whereof
the memory of man runneth not to the
contrary ; This gives it its weight and au-
thority ; and of this nature are the maxims
and customs which compose the common
law, or lex non scripta, of this kingdom.
This unwritten, or common law, is
properly distinguished into three kinds :
1. General customs, which are the uni-
versal rule of the whole kingdom, and
form the common law in its stricter and
more useful signification. 2. Particular
customs, which, for the most part, affect
only the inhabitants of particular dis-
tricts. 3. Certain particular laws, which
by custom are adopted and used by some
particular courts of pretty general and
extensive jurisdiction.

COMMON place book, among the learn-
ed, denotes a register of what things oc-
cur worthy to be noted in the course of a
man's study, so disposed as that, among
a number of subjects, any one may be
easily found. Several persons have their
several methods of ordering them; but
that which is best recommended is Mr.
Locke's method, which he has published
in a letter to Mr. Toisnard, determined
thereto by the great conveniency and ad-
vantage he had found from it in twenty
years experience. The substance of this
method is as follows :

The first page of the book, or, for more
room, the two first pages fronting each
other, are to serve for a kind of index to
the whole, and contain referencesto every-
place or matter therein ; in the commodi-
ous contrivance of this, so as it may ad-
mit of a sufficient variety of materials,
without confusion, all the si-crev of the
method consists. The manner of it, as

COM

ftud down by Mr. Locke, will be conceiv-
ed from the following specimen, wherein
what is to be done in the book for all the
letters of the alphabet is here shewn in
the first four.

The index of the common 'place book
being thus formed, it is ready for the tak-
ing down anything therein.

In order to this, consider to what head
the thing you would enter is most na-
turally referred, and under which one
would be led to look for such a thing ;
in this head or word regard is to be had
to the initial letter, and the first vowel
that follows it ; which are the characteris-
tic letters whereon all the use of the in-
dex depends.

Suppose, e, g. I would enter down a
passage that refers to the head beauty ;
B, 1 consider, is the initial letter, and e
the first vowel ; then looking upon the
index for the partition B, and therein
the line e ^which is the place for all
words whose initial is B, and the first
vowel e; as beauty, beneficence, bread,
bleeding, blemishes, &c.) and finding no
numbers already wrote to direct me to
any page of the book where words of
that characteristic have been entered, I
turn forward to the first blank page I
find, which, in afresh book, as this is sup-
posed to be, will be page 2, and here
write what I have occasion for on the
head beauty; beginning the head in the
margin, and indenting all the other sub-

servient lines, that the head may stand out
and shew itself; this done, I enter the
page where ;t is wrote, viz. 3, in the space
B e: from which time the class B e be-
comes wholly in possession of the second
and third pages, which are consigned to
letters of this characteristic.

Note. If the head be a monosyllable
beginning with a vowel, the vowel is at
the same time both the initial letter and
the characteristic vowel ; thus the word
Art is to be wrote in A a. Mr. Locke
omits three letters of the alphabet in his
index, viz. K, Y, and W, which are sup-
plied by C, I, and U, equivalent to them :
and as for Q, since it is always followed
by an u, he puts it in the first'place of Z :
and so has no Z u, which is a character-
istic that very rarely occurs. By thus
making Q the last of the index, its regu-
larity is preserved, without diminishing
its extent. Others choose to retain the
class Z w, and assign a place for Q u be-
low the index.

If any imagine these hundred classes
are not sufficient to comprehend all
kinds of subjects without confusion, he
may follow the same method, and yet
augment the number to 500, by taking in
one more characteristic to them.

But the inventor assures us, that in all
his collections, for a long series of years,
he never found any deficiency in the in-
dex as above laid down.

COMMON Pleas is one of the King's
courts now held constantly in Westmin-
ster Hall, but in former times was movea-
ble. All civil causes, as well real as per-
sonal, are, or were formerly, tried in this
court, according to the strict law of the
land. In personal and mixed actions it
has a concurrent jurisdiction with the
King's Bench, but has no cognizance of
pleas of the crown. The actions belong-
ing to the Court of Common Pleas come
thither by original, as arrests and out-
lawries ; or by privilege or attachment
for or against privileged persons ; or out
of inferior courts, not of record, by pone,
recordari, accedas ad curiam, writ of
false judgment, &c. The chief judge of
this court is called Lord Chief Justice of
the Common Pleas, who is assisted by
three other judges : the other officers
of the court are, the custos brevium, who
is the chief clerk ; three prothonotaries
and their secondaries; the clerk of the
warrants, clerk of the essoins, fourteen
filazers, four exigentors, a clerk of the
juries, the chirographer, the clerk of the
King's silver, clerk of the treasury, clerk
of the seal, clerk of the outlawries, clerk

COM

of the inrolmentof nes and recoveries,
and clerk of the errors.

COMMON pwyer is the 1'turgy in the
Church of England. Clergymen are
to use the public form ot prayers pre-
scribed by the Book of Common Prayer;
and refusing to do so, or using- any other
public prayers, are punishable by 1 Eliz.
c. ii.

COMMON, in grammar, denotes the gen-
der of nouns, which are equally applica-
ble to both sexes ; thus parens, a parent,
is of the common gender.

COMMON, in geometry, is applied to an
angle, line, or the like, which belongs
equally to two figures.

COMMON divisor, a quantity or number
which exactly divides two or more other
quantities or numbers, without leaving
any remainder.

COMMON measure, is such a number as
exactly measures two or more numbers
without a remainder.

( COMMON, greatest, measure, of two or
more numbers, is the greatest number
that can measure them : as 4 is the great-
est common measure of, 8 and 12.

COMMONS, in a general sense, con-
sist of all such men of property in the
kingdom, as have not seats in the House
of Lords, every one of whom has a voice
in parliament, either personally, or by
his representatives. In a free state, says
judge Blackstone, every man, who is sup-
posed a free agent, ought to be in some
measure his own governor, and therefore
a branch, at least, of the legislative power
should reside in the whole body of the
people. In so large a state as ours, it is
therefore wisely contrived, that the peo-
ple should do that by their representa-
tives, which it is impracticable to per-
form in person; representatives chosen
by a number of minute and separate dis-
tricts, wherein all the voters are, or easi-
ly may be, distinguished.

COMMONS, in parliament, are the lower
house, consisting1 of knights elected by
the counties, and of citizens and bur-
g-esses by the cities and borough towns.
In these elections, anciently, all the peo-
ple hud votes; but in the 8th and 10th of
King Henry VI. for avoiding tumults,
laws were enacted, that none should vote
for knights but such as were freeholders,
did reside in the county, and had forty
shillings yearly revenue, equivalent to
near 2(J/. a year of our present money :
the persons elected for counties to be
tnilites notabiles, at least esquires, or gen-
tlemen fit for knight-hood ; native Eng-
lishmen, at least naturalized ; and twen-

ty-one years of age ; no judge, sheriff, or
ecclesiastical person, to sit in the House
for county, city, or borough.

The House of Commons, in Fortes-
cue's time, who wrote during the reign
of Henry VI. consisted of upwards of 300
members: In Sir Edward Coke's time
their number amounted to 493. At the
time of the union with Scotland, in 1707,
there were 513 members for England
and Wales, to which 45 representatives
for Scotland were added : so that the
\vhole number of members amounted to
558. In consequence of the union with
Ireland in 1801, 100 members were
added for that country ; and the whole
House of Commons now consists of 658
members.

COMMONS, Doctors. See COLLEGE of
Civilians.

COMMUNIBUS locis, a Latin term,
frequently used by philosophical writers,
implying some medium or common rela-
tion between several places. Thus Dr.
Keil supposes the ocean to be one quar-
ter of a mile deep, communibus locis, that is,
at a medium, or taking one place with
another.

COMMUNIBUS annis has the same mean-
ing with regard to time, that comnmnibus
locis has with regard to places.

COMMUNICATION of motion, the act
whereby a body at rest is put into motion
by a moving body ; or it is the accelera-
tion of motion in a body already moving.
See MECHANICS.

COMMUTATION, in law, the change
of a penalty or punishment from a greater
to a less; as when death is commuted for
banishment, &c.

COMOCLADIA, in botany, a genus
of the Triandria Monogynia class and
order. Natural order of Terebintacese,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx
three-parted ; corolla three-parted ;
drupe oblong, with a two-lobed nucleus.
There are three species, natives of the
West-Indies.

COMPANY, in commerce, an associa-
tion formed for carrying on some branch
of trade which requires a greater capital
than private traders can usually command,
or which is liable to engagements to
which individual responsibility is deem-
ed inadequate. In the infancy of com-
merce, almost every branch of foreign
trade was carried on by a particular com-
pany, which generally possessed exclu-
sive privileges ; and such institutions
were then necessary and beneficial ; but
in modern times, when individuals have
accumulated larger capitals, and the im-
provement of navigation facilitated com-

COMPANY.

mercial intercourse with all parts of the
WorMr an4 the general practice of insu-
rance reduced tike risk of foreign voyages
to a regular Addition to the cost of "com-
modities, there are very few branches of
foieign trade, which cannot be more ad-
vantageously carried on by individuals,
ov private co-partnerships, than by pub-
lic companies.

W hen companies do not trade upon a
common stock, but are obliged to admit
any person properly qualified upon pay-
ing a certain fine, and agreeing to submit
to the regulations of the company, each
member trading upon his own stock, and
at his own risk, they are called regulated
companies. When they trade upon a
joint stock, each member sharing in the
common profit or loss in proportion to
his share in this stock, they are called
joint stock companies. The regulated
companies for foreign trade, which at
present subsist in Great Britain, are,
the African Company, the Turkey,
or Levant Company, the Russia Com-
pany, and the Eastland Company ;
they have, however, little more than a
nominal existence, as any person may
freely trade to these parts, without being
a member of any company, on paying a
very small additional duty. The princi-
pal joint stock companies for foreign
trade are, the East India Company, and
the Hudson's Bay Company ; the South
Sea Company has long given up its com-
mercial undertakings, and the Sierra
Leone Company has not yet acquired
much importance. There is, however,
a multitude of joint-stock companies es-
tablished, some with exclusive privi-
leges, but in general without any such
advantage, for carrying on the banking
business, for the different kinds of insu-
rance, for granting and purchasing an-
nuities, for making docks, navigable
canals, tunnels, roads, or rail-ways, and
for working mines.

The utility of joint-stock companies for
many of these purposes, and the success
which some of them have experienced,
has frequently produced a disposition for
the multiplication of such establishments,
and an opinion that they might be extend-
ed to almost every branch of trade and
manufactures. The rage for forming pub-
lic companies was, in 1720, carried to a
degree of infatuation, which led thou-
sands to subscribe to projects the most
useless or impracticable, and gave rise to
such a spirit of speculation and stock-job-
bing us rendt- red necessary the interfe-
rence of parliament, fn consequence of
the act then passed, 6 Geo. I, c. 18, up-

wards of two hundred projected compa-
nies ended in the loss and disappointment
of their respective subscribers. The
recollection of this circumstance prevent-
ed for many years any similar attempts,
till the frequency of subscriptions for
making canals shewed the facility of
raising large sums in this manner for any
public undertakings, and led to the for-
mation of joint stock companies for other
purposes. In the course of the year 1807
proposals were circulated for establish-
ing six new insurance companies ; seven
subscription breweries : four public dis-
tilleries; five genuine wine companies;
two vinegar manufactories ; a corn, flour,
and provision company ; a united public
dairy; a new medical laboratory for the
sale of genuine medicines; three coal
companies ; a clothing company ; a lin-
en company ; a united woollen company ;
a paper company ; two or three copper
companies ; a national light and heat com-
pany ; two new banks ; two commission
sale companies ; and a company for pur-
chasing canal shares, and lending money
for completing canals. On the Attorney
General proceeding against one or two of
these intended companies, most of the
others were abandoned.

COMPANY, East India, was established
by a charter from Queen Elizabeth, dated
31st December, 1600, which, though not
confirmed by act of parliament, was then
considered as conferring an absolute ex-
clusive privilege. Under this authority,
the members of the company traded, for
about twelve years, on their separate ca-
pitals, which, in 1613, they united into a
joint-stock. In the reign of James I. the
company obtained a new charter, and en-
larged their capital to 1,500,000/. ; their
profits at this time were not very great ;
and in the year 1655, Cromwell dissolved
the Company and laid open the trade, but
the mischief which followed obliged him
to re-establish it about three years after.
New charters were granted to the Com-
pany in 1661, 1669, and 1676, confirming
all their former privileges; but as th se
privileges were derived merely from
royal charters, without the sanction of
parliament, their exclusive right began
to be questioned, and individuals fre-
quently endeavoured to participate in a
commerce which had become very ad-
vantageous. These private adventurers
increasing in number, the Company, in.
1683, found means to obtain "another
charter, by which all former charters
were confirmed, and they were empow-
ered to seize the ships and merchandize
of individual traders, to maintain military

COMPANY.

forces, and to establish a court of judica-
ture They were soon after involved in
war with the Mogul, and other embarrass-
ments, which were attempted to be rec-
tified by the oft tried expedient of a new
charter ; and being thus armed with new
powers, they endeavoured to exclude ef-
fectually all individuals from interfering
in the trade. In 1693, the charter of the
Company became void, from default in
payment of the tax imposed on their
stock, but it was renewed, upon condition
of being determinable upon three years
notice.

The Company having sustained great
losses during the war with France, and
fallen into disrepute, a proposal was made
in 1698, by Mr. Samuel Shepherd, and a
number of other merchants, to advance
for the public service 2,000,000?. at 8 per
cent, interest, provided the sole exclu-
sive trade to India was settled on them ;
the proposal was accepted, and a new
company established by authority of par-
liament, and incorporated by charter, un-
der the title of the English Company
trading to the East Indies. The conten-
tions and emulation between the old and
new Companies was so great, that it be-
came necessary, even for the sake of pub-
lic tranquillity, to unite them : this was
partly effected in 1702, and in 1708 the
two Companies were, by act of parlia-
ment, perfectly consolidated, under their
present title of the United Company of
Merchants of England trading to the
East Indies. On the extension of the
term of their exclusive trade to three
years notice after Lady Day 1726, they
lent to government the further sum of
1,200,000?. without receiving any addi-
tional interest, and as it was necessary to
raise this sum by the sale of new stock,
the capital of the company thus became
3, 200,000/.

In 1712 the term of the company's ex-
clusive trade was extended to three years
notice after Lady Day 1733 ; which by a
subsequent agreement was prolonged to
1766 ; and again, to three years notice
after Lady Day 1780, with a provision,
that if their exclusive privileges should
be then determined, by the re -payment
of all sums which they had lent to govern-
ment, with all arrears of interest, the
Company should still remain a corpora-
tion for ever, and enjoy the East India
trade in common with all other subjects.

The interference ef the Company,
about the year 1750, in the contentions
between some of the native princes, led
to the acquirement of considerable ter-
ritories, and laid the foundation of the

extensive political authority which the
Company now possess, and which com-
prehends dominions of greater extent
than three times the area of the united
kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland.

On an average of 16 years preceding
1757, at whieh time the Company deriv-
ed little assistance from territorial reve-
nues, the annual sales of their imports
amounted to about 2,055,000?. ; and for
the same period their exported goods
and stores amounted annually, at their
prime cost, to 238,000?. ; the bullion ex-
ported to 690,000?.; and they paid in dis-
charge of bills of exchange 190,000?.
During the succeeding ten years the
sales of imports became increased to
2,150,000?. annually on the average, the
quantity of bullion exported was reduced
to about 120,000?. per annum, but the
exports in goods and stores, and the mo-
ney raised by bills of exchange were in-
creased in a greater ratio compared with
the returns from abroad. From 1767 to
1777 the export of goods was 490,000?.;
in bullion about 110,000?. ; the sums rais-
ed by bills 458,000?. per annum ; and by
the aid afforded from the revenues, the
investments were increased so as to pro-
duce about 3,300,000?. per annum; the af-
fairs of the Company, during this period
were however far from being in a flou-
rishing situation; they were under the ne-
cessity of reducing their dividend, and
of applying to parliament for assistance ;
but these difficulties being removed, the
dividend, in 1778, was raised again to 8
per cent.

In the seven years ending with 1784,
the average sales of the imports of the
Company, notwithstanding the expensive
war in which they were engaged, fell off
in the proportion only of about 200,000?.
annually ; the export in bullion was for
that period very trifling, but the goods
and stores exported were increased to
about half a million. The termination of
the war left the Company's affairs both at
home and abroad in great derangement,
and the discussions which followed pro-
duced a general conviction,that some new
arrangement was necessary forthefuturc
government of their extensive territorial
acquisitions. The principal measure
adopted was the establishment of a board
of control, composed of a certain number
of commissioners appointed by the king,
and removeable at his pleasure. This
board was authorised to check, superin-
tend and control, the civil and military
government and revenues of the Compa-
ny, and to inspect the dispatches trans-
mitted by the Directors to the different

COMPANY.

presidencies. The appointment of the
Governor-general, President, or Counsel-
lors in the differentprecidencieswasmade
subject to the approbation and recall of
his Majesty ; and a tribunal was created
for the trial of Indian delinquents. Some
further regulations were adopted in 1786,
the chief of which were, bestowing on
the Governor-general of India the high
prerogative, of deciding in opposition to
the sense of the majority of the council ;
and uniting the offices of Commander in
Chief and Governor-general in the same
person. The Company were empower-
ed to increase their capital, by creating
800,OOU/. new stock, for which they ob-
tained 1,240,000/. at the rate of 155 per
cent. ; and in 1789 they were authorised
to add a million to their capital, which
was effected at the rate of 174 per cent,
and preference was given to such per-
sons as were stockholders at the time of
subscription. Their annual dividend at
this time was 8 per cent, and continued
at this rate till 1793, when, in pursuance
of an agreement with government for the
renewal of their charter, another million
was added to their capital, which thus be-
came 6,000,000^. and the dividend was
raised to 10£ per cent.

By the agreement in 1793, the term of
their exclusive trade was continued, under
various regulations, for 20 years from the
1st of March, 1794, with the former pro-
viso, that if, after the expiration of that
term, their right to the sole trade shall
cease, in consequence of three years pre-
vious notice being given by parliament,
and the repayment of such sums as may be
then due from the public, they shall con-
tinue a corporation notwithstanding, with
power to carry on a free trade in common
with other persons.

The Company is underthe management
of twenty -four directors, elected by the
proprietors of the Company's stock, who
hold WOOL or upwards. Such proprietors
are likewise entitled to vote, on all occa-
sions, in the quarterly and special general
courts of the Company.

COMPANY, South Sea. The scheme for
satisfying the national deficiencies by the
establishment of this Company was ar-
ranged and brought forward in 1711, by
Mr. Harley, then chancellor of the Ex-
chequer, and the opinion of its efficacy
for retrieving the languishing state of
public credit was so great, that upon his
beingcreated Earl of Oxford, this service
was particularly mentioned in the patent
as one of the chief reasons for advancing
him to that honour. It certainly afforded

considerable relief to government,by con-
solidating a variety of debtt> and arrears
of interest.and making a general pro' ision
for them, which the expectatioai0£-edhp
from the commercial undertakings of the
Company induced the proprietors readily
to accept. These debrs and deficiencies
formed the first cap.rai of the Company,
which amounted to 9,177,96: £ 15s. 4d. in-
cluding half a million raised towards the
current services of the year. In 1715 their
capital was increased to l'J,OiKyjOG7. and
in i719 to 11,746,844/ 8*. 1> ,</. ; but as all
the sums thus subscribed into South Sea
stock consisted of public debts, which
were thus transferred from the individual
proprietors of them to the company, it
became necessary for the company to
borrow money on bonds, to enable them
to undertake their ostensible object of
trade to South America.

In 1720, the Company engaged in one of
the most memorable'projects ever attemp-
ted in Great Britain. It was founded upon
an agreement with government, autho-
rizing the Company to take in, either by
subscription or purchase, all the public
debts, at such prices as they could agree
upon with the respective proprietors; and
they were empowered to raise the money
which would be necessary for making1
these purchases,either by calls upon their
members, by annuities, bonds, or bills, or
by opening subscriptions for new stock. It
is difficult to conceive how the Company
could expect to derive such permanent
advantages from this transaction, as would
support any considerable increase of their
dividend ; ye^f the expectation of great
profits was so general, as to excite the most
extensive, though the most extravagant,
infatuation that was ever known in money
transactions in this country. South Sea
Stock was soon sold at double the sum
that had been paid in upon it, and in the
course of a short time reached the enor-
mous price of 1000 per cent. The rapidi-
ty of its fall, however, exceeded that by
which it rose ; for, before the end of the
year, the difference of price was more than
800 per cent, in the course of only three
weeks, by which thousands of persons suf-
fered very severe losses, and many were
entirely ruined.

The only branches of trade in which
the Company ever engaged were, in sup-
plying the Spanish colonies in America
with negroes, and the Greenland whale-
fishery. In both these undertakings the
Company were considerable losers ; in
consequence of which, in 1748, they gave
up the contract with Spain, and from that

COM

period have not carried on any branch of
commerce whatever, their whole business
being confined to transferring and paving
the dividends on the public funds, known
by the title of South Sea Stock, Old and
New South Sea Annuities, and South Sea
Annuities of 175J.

The company is under the management
of three governors and twenty-one direc-
tors. The whole expense of managing the
concern in the year ending the 5th of Ja-
nuary, 1807, was 10,727/. of which 3,6921.
was paid to the sub and deputy governors
and directors, and 4,735/. to 36 officers
and clerks employed by them. The sum
annually paid by the public to the South
Sea Company is 14,713/. 10s. 6d. and about
70/. for fees and allowances to the cashier.

COMPANY, Hudson's Bay, was established
in 1670, by charter, granted by Charles II.
to his cousin Prince Rupert, and seven-
teen other persons of distinction,who were
incorporated for carrying on an exclusive
trade to all parts of Hudson's Bay, and in-
vested with great powers and privileges.
The establishment excited the jealousy of
the French, who in 1686 seized on all their
forts or factories, except that at Port Nel-
son, they were, however, retaken in 1693;
but ciiey have been annoyed by the same
power at several subsequent periods : and
in 1782 a French squadron, under La Pe-
rouse, destroyed the settlements, forts,
merchandise, Jkc of the company, to the
supposed value of about 500,OUO/. sterling,
but without retaining possession of the
place.

The Company's charter not being con-
firmed by parliament, they have no right
in law to an exclusive trade ; but the nature
of the trade is such, that private adventu-
rers cannot engage in it in competition
with them. The Company is under the
direction of a governor, deputy governor,
and a committee of seven members: their
capital stock is said not to exceed 110,000/.
which is in the hands of a very small num-
ber of proprietors.

COMPANY, Sierra Leone, was instituted
in the year 1791, with a capital of about
230,000/. The general object of the sub-
scribers was the introduction of civilization
into Africa, for effecting which end they
proposed to establish a secure factory at
Sierra Leone, with the view to a new trade
in produce, chiefly with the interior of the
country ; but the reception into the settle-
ment of near 1200 blacks from Nova Sco-
tia, in March, 1792, produced much em-
barrassment, which was increased in 1793
in- the war, which interrupted Iheir trade,

' VOL. Ill

and subjected them to depredations. In
1794 the colony was attacked and taken
by the French, who destroyed every de-
scription of property belonging to the
Company, by which they sustained a loss
of about 52,0007. In 1798, however, the
colony had so far recovered as to contain
about 1200 inhabitants : the heads of fami-
lies were about 300 ; of whom about one
half were supported by their farms, many
were mechanics, about 15 were retail
shopkeepers, 20 or 25 followed the busi-
nes of fishing, 10 or 15 traded in small
vessels of their own, 4 were employed as
schoolmasters, 12 or 15 as seamen, and
about 20 as labourers under the Company:
from 3 to 400 native labourers worked in
the settlement for hire, chiefly on the
farms, which were increasing rapidly.

Further difficulties and losses have been
experienced, from an insurrection of the
Nova Scotians in 1800, and an attack of
some of the neighbouring tribes in 1801,
but the colony is now possessed of more
effectual means of defence, and a great
impediment to its progress has been
done away by the abolition of the slave
trade.

COMPANY, Dutch East India. This once
celebrated establishment was formed by
the union of a number of separate compa-
nies in 1602 : it carried on for many years
a very flourishing trade, which has since
declined very rapidly, particularly from
about the year 1770, and in 1799 it was
entirely suspended. The Dutch have like-
wise had West India Companies, a Levant
Company, Companies for the Baltic sea,
the whale fishery, &c.

COMPANY, French East India, was esta-
blished in!664, but never became of much
importance In 1769 the trade was laid
open. A new Company was established
in 1785, but was abolished in 1790. The
other commercial Companies of France
were, principally, a West India Company,
a St. Domingo Company, the Senegal
Company, the Mississippi Company, the
Company of the West, and the Bastion
Company.

COMPANY, Danith East India, and also
the Swedish East Company, still possess
a share in the commerce of the East, al-
though, it is not very considerable.

COMPANY, in military affairs, a small
body of foot commanded by a captain,
who has under him a lieutenant and en-
sign.

The number of centinels, or private
soldiers, in a company, may be from 50
to 80 ; and a battalion conssists of tbir-

.\ n

COM

teen such companies, one of which is al-
ways grenadiers, and posted on the
right •. next them stand the eldest compa-
ny, and on the left the second company ;
the youngest one being always posted in
the center.

Companies not incorporated into regi-
ments are called irregulars, or indepen-
dent companies.

COMPANY of ships, a fleet of merchan-
men, who make a charter party among
themselves, the principal conditions
whereof usually are, that certain vessels
shall be acknowledged admiral, vice-ad-
miral, and rear-admiral; that such and
such signals shall be observed ; that
those which bear no guns shall pay so
much per cent, of their cargo ; and in
case they be attacked, that what damages
are sustained shall be reimbursed by the
company in general. In the Mediter-
ranean such companies are called Con-
serves.

COMPARATIVE anatomy, is the sci-
ence which examines the structure of
the body in animals. It includes, in its
most extensive sense, a view of the cor-
poreal organization of all classes of the
animal kingdom.

This science, which is very aptly
denominated comparative anatomy, af-
fords the most essential aid in elucidat-
ing the structure of the human body,
and in explaining the doctrines of phy-
siology.

The want of any organ in certain
classes of animals, or its existence under
different modifications of form, structure,
&c. cannot fail to suggest most interest-
ing conclusions concerning the office of
the same part to the human subject.
Thus our physiological reasonings, which
must necessarily be partial and incom-
plete, when deduced from the structure
of a single animal or class, are extended
and corrected by this general compara-
tive survey, and may therefore be relied
on with the greater confidence. We are
indebted to such investigations for the dis-
covery of the circulation and of the lym-
phatic system ; for the elucidation of'the
functions of digestion and generation ;
indeed, there is no branch of anatomy
or physiology, which has not received
most material benefit from the same
source. Hence Haller has very justly
observed, that " physiology has been
more illustrated by comparative anato-
my, than by the dissection of the human
body."

The study of comparative anatomy is
moreover of the greatest importance in its

connection with veterinary science, and
with that highly interesting pursuit, na-
tural history. It would be an affront to
our readers to enlarge upon its utility in
the former point of view ; but we may
be allowed to observe on the latter sub-
ject, that anatomical structure forms the
only sure basis of a natural classification
ofthe animal kingdom; and "that any ar-
rangement, not founded on this ground-
work, will lead us into the most gross and
palpable errors

Lastly, this study opens to the mind a
great source of interest and satisfaction,
in exhibiting such numerous and unde-
niable proofs of the exertion 'of contri-
vance and design in the animal struc-
ture ; in displaying those modifications
of particular parts and organs, by which
they are adapted to the peculiar circum-
stances of the animal, and become sub-
servient to its wants, its necessities, or its
enjoyments.

The importance of the subject, from
the above-mentioned circumstances, is
now so fully recognised, that it begins
with justice to be considered as an essen-
tial part of a regular medical education.
Public lectures have been delivered on it
for some years in Germany and France ;
and lately the example has been followed
in this metropolis.

Hitherto there has been rather a defi-
ciency of good works on this science,
and particularly of elementary books.
Blasius has given a collection ofthe writ-
ings of several authors on the anatomy of
particular animals, in one volume 4to.,
. entitled " Anatomia animalium figuris
variis illustrata," Amstel. 1681; which
may still be consulted with advantage,
particularly on account of the plates.
Cuvier's "Lecons d'Anatomie comparce,"
in five large 8vo. volumes, form a very
valuable and useful repository of facts in
comparative anatomy ; but the subject is
treated at such length, and with so many
uninteresting details, that the book is by
no means adapted for the use of students.
The only compendious and scientific
view of the subject, which we can recom-
mend to beginners, is the short system
published by Blumenbach of Gottingen,
and translated from the German by Mr.
Lawrence, who has accompanied it with
numerous additional notes.

The necessity of confining this arti-
cle within a given number of pages
renders it impossible for us to give a
general view of the subject: we shall,
therefore, select such parts as are
either particularly interesting in them-
selves, or such as become important frolm

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

elucidating the structure or functions of
the human body.

It is necessary for us to make a few
remarks on the classification of the ani-
mal kingdom* as the terms employed in
the following article differ occasionally
from those of the Linnaean system, which
has been hitherto chiefly used in this
country ; and, independently of this cir-
cumstance, such of our readers, as have
not particularly attended to the study of
natural history, may derive assistance and
information from a short sketch and ex-
planation of the arrangement of animals
according to their anatomical structure,
with an enumeration of the chief genera
in each order.

That the Linnaean system is exposed to
numerous and well grounded objections,
and that in many instances it disregards
anatomical structure, which shouldVorm
the basis of a natural classification, will
be readily allowed by the most sanguine
admirers of its illustrious author. Yet it
must be remembered, that the general
adoption of this method renders it desira-
ble to deviate from it in as few instances
as possible ; since the introduction of new
orders and names must necessarily create
difficulty and confusion in the study of
the science. The French zoologists,
whose successful labours in the advance-
ment of natural history must be acknow-
ledged with every due tribute of respect,
have carried the rage of innovation too
far, in the universal rejection of the Lin-
nsean method, and the unnecessary multi-
plication of new orders and genera. The
defects or errors of any system could not
cause so much perplexity and inconve-
nience, as the want of a generally receiv-
ed standard, and the unlimited licence,
in which every individual indulges, of
fabricating new classifications and arrange-
ments. To judge by some recent works,
we should be led to suppose, that the
merit of a systematic arrangement of ani-
mals does not consist in the simplicity
or intelligibility of the system ; but is in
proportion to the number of newly -creat-
ed terms.

Animals may be distributed into two
grand divisions : those which have a ver-
tebral column, and red blood : and those
which have no vertebrae, and are white
blooded.

In the former division there is always
an interior skeleton ; the chief support of
which is the column of vertebrae, a spinal
marrow contained in the vertebral canal;
never more than four members, of which
one or both pairs are wanting in some

instances. The brain is contained in a
cranium : there is a great sympathetic
nerve; five senses; two moveable eyes ;
and three semicircular canals in the ear.
The circulation is performed by one mus-
cular ventricle at least. There are lym-
phatic as well as blood vessels. Thejuws
being placed horizontally, the mouth is
opened by their moving from above down-
wards, or from before backwards. There
is a continuous alimentary canal, ex-
tending from the mouth to the anus,
which is always placed behind the pelvis;
peritoneum; liver, spleen, and pancreas;
two kidneys, and renal capsules ; and two
testicles.

The vertebral animals are subdivided
into warm and cold-blooded.

Warm blooded vertebral animals have
two ventricles in the heart, and a double
circulation ; and breathe by means of
lungs. The cranium is comple'.ely filled
by the brain. The eyes are closed by eye-
lids. The tympanum of the ear is hollow-
ed out of the cranium, and the labyrinth
is excavated in the bone. Besides the
semicircular canals, the ear lias a coch-
lea. The nostrils communicate with the
fauces, and allow the passage of air into
the lungs. The trunk is constantly fur-
nished with ribs.

In cold blooded vertebral animals, the
brain never entirely fills the cranium. The
eyes seldom possess moveable eye lids.
When the tympanum exists, it is on a
level with the surface of the head. There
is no cochlea. The different parts of the
ear are connected but loosely to the cra-
nium.

The division of warm blooded ani-
mals contains two classes; Mammalia
and Birds.

The mammalia are viviparous, and
suckle their young, from which circum-
stance the name is derived. They have
an uterus with two cornua : and the male
has a penis.

There are two occipital condyles, con-
necting the head to the atlas : never less
than six, nor more than nine cervical ver-
tebrae: a very complicated brain ; four
ossicula auditus, and a spiral cochlea.
The skin covered with hair. A muscu-
lar diaphragm separates the chest and
abdomen. There is an epiglottis. The
lower jaw only moves. The fluid in the
lacteals is white, and passes through
several conglobate glands. Th?re is an
omentum.

Blumenbach establishes the following
orders in this class :

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,

I. Himamim. Two handed.
Genus 1. Homo.

II. Qiiadrumana, four handed animals ;
having a separate thumb, capable of being
opposed to the other fingers, both in their
upper and lower extremities. Teeth like
those of man, except that the cuspidati
are generally longer.

1. Simiae, apes, monkeys, baboons.

2. Lemur, macauco.

III. Bradypoda, slow-moving animals.

1. Brady pus, sloth.

2. Myrmecophaga, ant-eater.

3. Munis, scaly-lizard, or pangolin.

4. Dasypus or Tatu, armadillo.

This order forms two in the arrange-
ment of Cuvier. 1st. Tardigrada ; which
includes the sloths. There are no inci-
sores in either jaw ; there is a complicated
stomach, but no rumination. 2dly. Eden-
tata, toothless animals. Some of these
have no teeth ; others want the incisores
and cuspidati. The tongue is long, slen-
der, and projectile, for seizing the in-
sects on which the animals feed ; body
covered with hard substances. The ar-
madillo, munis, ant-eater, and ornithor-
hyncus, or duck-billed animal, belong to
this order.

IV. Cheiroptera, having the fingers
elongated for the expansion of a mem-
brane which acts as a wing.

Vespertilio, bat.

V. Glires. Rodentia of Cuvier — gnaw-
ing animals. Have two long and very
large incisor teeth in each jaw, by which
they cut and gnaw hard bodies, chiefly
vegetables ; there is a large interval be-
hind these teeth, unoccupied by cuspi-
dati ; long intestines, and generally a large
ccecum. The hind legs, being longer than
the front extremities, give to these ani-
mals a leaping mode of progression. The
disproportion is sometimes so great, that
the front legs are not used in walking. A
bone in the penis.

1. Sciurus, squirrel.

2. Glis, dormouse (Myoxus, Linn.)

3. Mus, mouse and rat.

4. Marmota, marmot.

5. Cavia, guinea-pig.

6. Lepus, hare and rabbit.

7. Jaculus, jerboa.

8. Castor, beaver.

9. Hystrix, porcupine.

VI. Ferae, predaceous and carnivorous
animals. Very strong and large pointed
canine teeth : molares forming pointed
prominences ; short and simple alimen-
tary canal, and consequently slender
belly.

1. Erinaceus, hedge-hog.

2. Sorex, shrew.

3. Talpa, mole.

4. Meles, badger.

5. Ursus, bear.

6. Didelphis, opossum, kanguroo.

7. Viverra, weasels, ferret, polecat,

civit.

8. Mustela, skunk, stoat, &c.

9. Canis, dog, wolf, jackal, fox,

hyena.

10. Felis, cat, lion, tiger, leopard,

lynx, panther, &c.

11. Lutra, otter.

12- Phoca, seal or sea-calf.

The five first genera of this order form
the plantigrada of Cuvier ; animals which
rest the whole of the foot on the ground.
They are less carnivorous than the others ;
have a longer intestinal canal, and no
caecum.

The sixth genus forms the Pedimana
of the same zoologist; as they possess a
separate thumb on the hind extremities
only. They have a pouch in the abdo-
men, containing the mammae, and holding
the young in their early state. One spe-
cies, the kanguroo, (didelphis gigantea)
must however be excepted. That is
placed among the rodentia, and does not
possess the separate thumb.

The order carnivora of Cuvier will in-
clude from the seventh to the eleventh
genus, both inclusive. These have a bone
in the penis. The seal belongs to this
amphibia.

In the three following orders the toes
are so incased in horny coverings, that
they can only serve to support the body
in standing or progression. As these ani-
mals all feed on vegetables, the intestines
are very long, and the belly consequently
large.

VII. Solidungula (solipeda, Cuvier,) a
single toe on each foot, with an undivid-
ed hoof; a small and simple stomach, but
large intestines, and particularly an enor-
mous caecum; incisores in both jaws; mam-
mae in the groin, as in the pecora.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

1. Equus, horse and ass.

VIII. Pecora or Bisulca (ruminantia of
Cuvier,) a divided hoof. No incisores in
the upper jaw, where their place is sup-
plied by a callous prominence ; stomach
consisting of four cavities ; rumination of
the food ; long intestines. Their fat be-
comes hard and brittle when cold. The
mammae are placed between the posterior
extremities. The penis of the male has
no bone.

1. Camelus, camel, dromedary, lama.

2. Capra, sheep, goat.

3. Antilope, antelope, chamois..

4. Bos, ox, buffalo.

5. Giraffa, giraffe or camelopard.

6. Cervus, elk, deer-kind.

7. Moschus, musk.

IX. JBelhtte, animals of an unshapely
form, and a tough and thick hide ; whence
they have been called, by Cuvier, pachy-
dermata (from 7r<tx,v$ thick, and JVf JU.M
skin.) They have more than two toes:
incisores in both jaws, and in some cases
enormous tusks ; mammae extend under
the belly, where they are numerous.

1. Sus, pig kind, pecari, babiroussa.

2. Tapir.

3. Elephas.

4. Rhinoceros.

5. Hippopotamus.

6. Trichecus, morse or walrus, ma-

nati or sea-cow.

The last genus of this order, together
with the foca (seals) constitutes the
Amphibia of Cuvier. These animals have
short members adapted for swimming.

X. Cetacea,whales, living entirely in the
sea, and formed like fishes ; breathe by an
opening at the top of the head, called the
blowing hole; through which they throw
out the water, which enters their mouth
with the food ; smooth skin covering a
thick layer of oily fat ; no external ear ;
a complicated stomach ; multilobular kid-
neys ; larynx of a pyramidal shape, open-
ing towards the blowing hole ; testes with-
in the abdomen ; mammae at the sides of
the vulva ; bones of the anterior extremity
concealed and united by the skin, so as to
form a kind of fin ; no posterior extremi-
ties ; teeth which retain their prey, but do
not masticate, and instead of which there
are sometimes layers of a horny substance
Called whalebone.

1. Monodon, narwhal, sea-unicorn.

2. Balaena, proper whale.

3. Physeter.

4. Delphinus, dolphin, porpoise.

Cuvier distributes the class mammalia
into three grand divisions :

1. Those which have claws or nails

(mammife'res a ongles :) includ-
ing the following orders : bima-
na, quadrumana, cheiroptera,
plantigrada, carnivora, pedima-
na, rodentia, edentata, tardi-
grada.

2. Those which have hoofs (mam-

mif. a ongles) including the pa-
chydermata, ruminantia, and so
lipeda.

3. Those which have extremities

adapted for swimming (mammif.
a pieds en nageoire.) Amphibia
and cetacea.

Birds are oviparous ; have a single ovary
and oviduct ; a single occipital condyle ;
very numerous cervical vertebrae ; a very
large sternum ; and anterior extremities
adapted for flying, the posterior only being
used for walking.

They have three eyelids ; no external
ear ; a bone in the tongue ; a cochlea coni-
cal, but not spiral ; a single ossiculum au-
ditus ; body covered with feathers. The
lungs are attached to the surface of the
chest, and penetrated by the air, which
goes all over the body ; no diaphragm ;
there is a larynx at each end of the tra-
chea ; no epiglottis ; the jaws are covered
with a horny substance, and are both
moveable ; there are no lips, gums, nor
teeth ; the chyle is transparent ; no me-
senteric glands, nor omentum ; no blad-
der of urine, the ureters terminating in a
bag, through which the eggs and faeces
come, viz. the cloaca ; the pancreas and
liver have both several ducts entering the
intestine ; spleen in the centre of the me-
sentery.

This class cannot be distributed into or-
ders so clearly distinguished by anatomi-
cal characters as the preceding one. Blu-
menbach divides them into two leading
divisions.

(A) TERRESTRIAL BIRDS.

Order I. Accipitres. Birds of prey, with
strong hooked bills, and large curved ta-

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

Ions, a membranous stomach, and short
caeca.

1. Vultur, vultures.

2. Falco, falcon, eagle, hawk, kite.

3. Strix, owl.

4. Lanius, shrike, or butcher bird.

II. Levirostres, light-billed birds, hav-
ing a large hollow bill.

1. Psittacus, parrot kind.

2. Ilamphastos, toucan.

3. Buceros, rhinoceros bird.

1IT. Pica, this and the two following or-
ders are not clearly characterised.

1, Picus, woodpecker.

2. Jynx, wryneck.
3 Sitta, nuthatch.

4. Alcedo, king's-fisher.

5. Trochilus, humming 'bird, &c. &c.

IV. Cor aces.

1. Corvus, crow, raven, jackdaw,

magpie, jay, &c.

2. Coracias, roller.

3. Paradisea, birds of paradise.

4. Cuculus, cuckoo, &c. &c.

V. Passeres, small singing-birds.

1. Alauda, lark.

2. Sturnus, starling.

3. Turdus, thrush, black-bird.

4. Emberiza, bunting.

5. Fringilla, finches, canary-bird, lin-

net, sparrow.

6. Motacilla, nightingale, redbreast,

wren.

7. Hirundo, swallows, martins, &c.

8. Caprimulgus, goatsucker, &c.

VI Gallinoe, gallinaceous birds, mostly
domesticated. They possess a large crop,
strong muscular gizzards, short legs.

1. Columba, pigeons.

2 Tetrao, grous, quail, partridge.

3. Numida, guinea-fowl.

4. Meleagris, tuikey.

5. Pavo, peacock.

6. Otis, bustard.

VII. Slruthiones, struthinous birds. The
largest of the class : possess extremely
small wings, and are therefore incapable
of flight ; but run very swiftly.

1. Struthio, ostrich.

2. Casuarius, cassowary or emu.

(fl) AQ.UATIC BIRDS.

Order 1. Grattx, waders frequenting
marshes and streams ; long' naked legs ;
long neck ; cylindrical bill, of different
lengths.

1. Ardea, crane, stork, heron, bit-

tern.

2. Scolopax, woodcock, snipe, cur-

lew.

3. Tringa, lapwing, huffs, and reeves.

4. Charadrivis, plover.

5. Fulica, coot.

6. Rallus, rail.

7. Phoenicopterus, flamingo.

8. Tantalus, ibis, &c.

II. Jlnscrcs, swimming birds ; web-
footed ; bill broad and Hat, covered by a
somewhat soft substance, on which large
nerves are distributed.

1. Colymbus, diver.
2 Larus, gull.

3. Procellaria, petrel.

4. Diomedea, albatros.

5. Pelecamis, pelican, cormorant.

6. Anas, swan, duck, goose.

7. Mergus, goosander.

8. Alca, auk, puffin.

9. Aptenodytes, penguin.

The two classes of cold-blooded ver-
tebral animals are, the Amphibia, and
Fishes.

The former, differing considerably
from each other, have very few common
characters ; for in different instances they
walk, fly, swim, and cruwl. There is no
' external ear, nor cochlea ; the brain is
always very small ; the lungs are in the
same cavity with the other viscera, and
have very large air-cells ; no- epiglottis,
omentum, nor mesenteric glands; two ova-
ries and oviducts ; cloaca, through which
the faeces and urine are expelled, and in
which the organs of generation terminate;
neither hair, feathers, nor mammae ; skin
either naked, or covered with scales ; both
jaws are moveable ; there is an urinary
bladder.

Order I. lieptilia, having four
(quadrupeda ovipara.')

feet,

\. Testudo, tortoise, turtle.

2. Rana, frog, toad.

3. Lacerta, -lizards, crocodile, cha-

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

meleon, newt, salamander, igu-
ana, &c.

II. Serpentla. No external members ;
body ot" an elongated form, and viscera of
a similar shape ; they are oviparous ; but
the egg is sometimes hatched in the ovi-
duct ; both jaws moveable.

1. OotaUis, rattlesnake.

2. Boa. Immense serpents of India

and Africa.

3. Coluber, viper.

4. Anguis, blind worm.

5. Amphisbsena.

6. Csecilia.

Fishes. Breathe by means of branchiae
«r gills, and have no trachea, nor larynx ;
organs of motion consisting of fins; nose
unconnected with the organs of respira-
tion ; ear entirely enclosed in the head,
the tympanum, &c. being absent; both
jaws moveable ; the place of the pancreas
supplied by the pyloric ceeca ; an urinary
bladder ; two ovaries ; heart consisting of
a single auricle and ventricle. They may
be distributed into two leading divisions :
the cartilaginous, whose skeleton consists
of cartilage ; the bony, where it is formed
of a more firm substance.

(A) CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.

Order "I. Ghondropterygii ,• having no
gill-cover ; an uterus, with two oviducts.

1. Petromyzon, lamprey.

2. Gastrobrarichus.

3. Raia, skate, torpedo, stingray.

4. Squalus, shark, saw-fish.

5. Lophius, sea-devil, frog-fish.

6. Balistes, file-fish.

7. Chimaera.

H. Brancldoslegii ,- having a gill-cover.

1. Accipenser, sturgeon, beluga.

2. Ostracion, trunk-fish.

3. Tetrodon.

4. Diodon, porcupine-fish.

5. Cyclopterus, lumpsucker.

6. Centriscus.

7. Syngnathus, pipe-fish.

8. Pegasus.

(B) HONY FISHES, DIVIDED ACCORDING TO
THE SITUATION OF T1IKIU FISTS.

Order I. Apodes ; no ventral fins.

1. Murxna, eel-kind.

2. Gymnotus, electrical eel.

3. Anarrhichas, sea- wolf.

4. Xiphias, sword-fish.

5. Ammodites, launce.

6. Ophidium.

7. S'romateus.

8. Trichiurus.

II. Thoracici ; ventral fins directly un-
der the thoracic.

1. Echeneis, sucking-fish.

2. Coryphaena, dorado.

3. Zeus, dory.

4. Pleuronectes, flounder, plaice, dab,

holibut, sole, turbot.

5. Chaetodon.

6. Sparus.

7. Perca, perch.

8 Scomber, mackarel, bonito, tunny.
9. Mullus, mullet, &c. &c.

III. Jib dominates ; ventral fins behind
the thoracic ; chiefly inhabit fresh water.

1. Cobitis, loach.

2. Silurus.

3. Salmo, salmon, trout, smelt.

4. Esox, pike.

5. Clupea, herring, sprat, shad'.

6. Cyprinus, carp, tench, gold-fish,

minow, &c. &c.

IV. Jugulures ,• ventral fins in front of
the thoracic.

1. Gadus, haddock, cod, whiting,

ling.

2. Uranoscopus, star-gazer.

3. Blennius, blenny.

4. Callionymus, dragonet.

5. Trachinus, weaver.

The animals, which have no vertebral
column, do not possess so many common
characters as the vertebral classes ; their
hard parts, when they have any, are ge-
nerally placed on the surface of the body ;
the centre of the nervous system, instead
of being mclosed in a bony case, lies in
the same cavity with the viscera ; the oeso-
phagus is generally surrounded by a ner-
vous chord coming from the brain ; their
respiration is not carried on by lungs, and
they have no voice ; their jaws move in .
various directions ; they have no urinary-
secretion.

The invertebral animals were distribut-
ed by Linnaeus into two classes; insects
and worms (vcrmes.) The anatomical
structure of these animals was very irn-"

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

perfectly known, when the Swedish na-
turalist first promulgated his arrange-
ment. But the labours of subsequent zoo-
logists, and particularly those of Cuvier,
have succeeded in establishing such strik-
ing and important differences in their for-
mation, that a subdivision of the Linnaean
classes became indispensably necessary.
The insects of Linnaeus are divided into
Crustacea and insecta : and the verrnes of
the same author form three classes : tftz.
Molluscu, Verraes, and Zoophyta.

The Mollusca derive their name from
the soft fleshy nature of their body. This
class includes those pulpy animals, which
may either be destitute of an external
covering, when they are called mollusca
nuda, as the slug ; or may be inclosed in
one or more shells, as the snail, oyster,
Sec. when they are termed testacea.

The animals of this class have no arti-
culated members : they have blood-ves-
sels, and a true circulation ; they respire
by means of gills ; they have a distinct
brain, giving origin to nerves ; and a spi-
nal marrow.

1. Sepia, cuttlefish.

2. Argonauta.

3. Nautilus.

4. Limax, slug.

5. Aplysia.

6. Doris.
. 7. Clio.

8. Patella, limpet.

9. Helix, snail.

10. Haliotis, Venus's ear.

11. Murex, caltrop, or rockshell.

12. Strombus, screw.

13. Buccinum, whelk.

14. Ascidia.

15. Thalia.

16. Ostrea, oyster.

17. Solen, razorshell.

18. Cardium, cockle.

19. Mytilus, muscle, &c. &c.

Cuvier classes the numerous genera of
this order under the three following di-
visions : 1. Cephalopoda, (from xfpctby
the head, and KX$ the foot) which have
their organs of motion placed round the
bead; 2. Gasteropoda, (from y^Sff, the
belly, and vx^^ such as crawl on the
belly ; and 3. Acephala, (from #, priva-
tive, and xe<pesA»j,) which have no head.
The three first genera belong to the first
division ; the ten succeeding ones come
under the second ; and the remainder ex-
emplify the last order.

According as the shell of the testace-
ous mollusca consists of a single convo-
luted tube, or of two or more separate
pieces, they are called cochleae bivalves^
multivalves, &c.

Crustacea possess a hard external ca-
vering, and numerous articulated mem-
bers ; a long nervous chord, beset with
ganglia ; compound eyes ; antennae and
palpi like those of insects ; a heart and
circulating vessels, and gills ; teeth in the
cavity of the stomach.

1. Cancer, crab, lobster, crayfish,

shrimp.

2. Monoculus.

Insects have articulated members and
antennae. Those which fly are subject
to what is called a metamorphosis ; they
pass through certain intermediate states
of existence before they assume the last
or perfect form. From the egg proceeds
the larva, or caterpillar : this changr s to
the chrysalis, nympha, or aurelia, from
which the perfect insect is produced ;
nervous system consisting of a chord be-
set with ganglia ; no heart nor blood-ves-
sels ; respiration carried on by means of
tracheae.

Order I. Coleoptera ; having a hollow,
horny case, under which the wings arc
folded. •

1. Scarabaeus, beetles.

2. Lucanus, stag-beetle.

3. Dermestes. •

4. Coccinella, lady-bird.

5. Curculio, weevil.

6. Lampyris, glow-worm.

7. Meloe, Spanish-fly.

8. Staphylinus.

9. Forficula, earwig.

II. ffemiptera ; four wings, either
stretched straight out, or resting across
each other.

1. Blatta, cockroach.

2. Gryllus, locust, grasshopper.

3. Fulgora, lantern-fly.

4. Cimex, bug, &c.

III. Lepidoptera ; soft hairy body, and
four expanded wings.

1. Papilio, butterfly.

2. Sphinx,

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

IV. Neuroplera / four reticulated wings.

1. Libellula, dragon-fly.

2. Ephemera, &c.

V. Hymenoptera ; generally possessing a
sting.

1. Vespa, wasp, hornet.

2. Aspis, bee.

3. Formica, ant.

4. Termes, white ant.

5. Ichneumon, &c.

VI. Diptera ,• two wings.

1. (Estrus, gad-fly.

2. Musca, common flies.

3. Culex, gnat, mosquito.

4. Hippobosca, horse-leech, &c.

VII. Jlptera ; no wings.

1. Podura, springtail.

2. Pediculus, louse.

3. Pulex, flea, chigger.

4. Acarus, tick, mite.

5. Aranea, spider.

6. Scorpio, scorpion, &c.

The vermes may be divided into
two orders; the intestinal, which inha-
bit the bodies of other animals ; and the
external.

The former are not of such a compli-
cated organization as the latter ; so that
they are sometimes arranged among the
zoophytes. The external worms have a
nervous chord possessing ganglia, an
elongated body composed of rings, and
having no distinct head ; there are no
members ; circulating vessels, but no
heart ; no nerves have been discovered
in the intestinal worms.

Order \. Intestini.

1. Gordius, guinea-worm.

2. Ascaris, thread-worm,

worm.

3. Tricocephalus.

4. Fasciola, fluke.

5. Txnia, tape-worm.

6. Hydatis, hydatid.

II. Externi.

1. Aphrodite, sea-mouse.

2. Sipunculus.

3. Hirudo, leech. \

4. Nereis.

round-

5. Nais.

6. Planaria.

7. Lumbricus, earth-worm, &c.

The Zoophytes have neither brain nor
nerves; no heart, nor, perhaps, blood-ves-
sels ; no articulated members.

Order. I. Echinodermata ,- covered by a
hard and tough coriaceous skin.

1 Echinus, sea hedge-hog.
2. Asterias, star fish, &c.

IT. Soft or Gelatinous Zoophytes.

1. Medusa, sea-blubber, sea net-

tles.

2. Actinia, sea-anemone.

3. Hydra, fresh water polype.

III. Infusoria, the animalcules of infu-
sions.

1. Vorticella, wheel-animal.

2. Brachionus.

3. Vibrio, eel of vinegar.

4. Volvox.

5. Monas.

IV. Inhabitants of corals, corallines,
sponges, &c.

COMPARATIVE OSTEOLOGY.

It has been asserted, that the bones in
some instances have not their ordinary
white colour. Thus the amedabad finch,
(fringilla amandava,) and the golden
pheasant, have been said to possess
yellow bones ; but this is not true. In the
garpike (esox belone) the bones are
green ; and in some varieties of the com-
mon fowl in the East Indies they are
black ; but this colour is said by Mr. Hun-
ter to reside in the periosteum.

The opinion of Aristotle, that the bones
of the lion had no marrow, is totally un-
founded.

The bones of the cranium are much
more completely ossified at the time of
birth, in the mammalia, than in man. In
the former the fontanells are hardly dis-
cernible. When we compare the pelvis,
and the whole mechanism of parturition
in the woman, with those of the female
quadruped, the cause of this difference
appears; we then discover, why the yield-
ing and over lapping of the large
bone of the cranium, which is chiefly
effected by the fontanells, is only requir-

VOL. III.

O o

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

cd to facilitate the birth of the human
foetus.

The skeleton remains constantly carti-
laginous in some animals ; such as the
skate, shark, sturgeon, and all those fish-
es, which, from this circumstance, have
been denominated cartilaginous. The
bones of birds are almost universally hol-
low ; but their cavities, which never
contain ma'rrmv, are filled with air. This
organization unites the advantages of
strength and lightness.

Crustaceous animals, (crab, lobster,
Stc.) have a skeleton which surrounds
and contains their soft parts, and .which
serves at the same time the purposes of
a skin When it has attained its per-
fect consistence, it grows no more : but
as the soft parts still increase, the shell
separates, and is drtacherl, being suc-
ceeded by a larger one. This new co-
vering is partly formed before the other
separates : it is at first soft, sensible, and
vascular ; but it speedily acquires a hard
consistence by the increased deposition
of calcareous matter.

Some of the mollusca have hard parts
in the interior of their body. The com-
mon cuttlefish (sepia officinalis) has a
white, firm, and calcareous mass, of an
oval form, anu slightly convex on its two
surfaces, commonly known by the name
the cuttlefish-bone, contained in the
substance of its body. I\ has no connec-
tion with any soft, part, whence it ap-
pears completely as a foreign body : no
vessel nor nerve can be perceived to en-
ter it ; nor does it receive the attach-
ment of any tendon. In the calmar (se-
pia loligo) this body resembles horn in
its appearance ; it is transparent, hard,
and brittle. Its form resembles that of
a leaf, except that it is larger; and some-
times that of a sword blade. These parts
must grow like shells, by the simple ad-
dition of successive layers.

In the vertebral animals, the bony
parts of the body are composed of a ge-
latinous substance, united to phosphate of
lime. But in the lower orders of ani-
mals, the hard parts are composed
chiefly or entirely of carbonate of lime.
This is the case with the shells of all the
testacea.

SKELETON OF MAMMALIA.

The form of the different mammalia,
particularly the four footed ones, varies
considerably; and their skeletons must
be marked by corresponding differen-
ces. Yet these varieties may be includ-

ed, at least for the greatest part, under
the following peculiarities ; which serve
to distinguish their skeletons from those
of birds.

The skeletons of
mammalia possess :

1. A sku-11 with
genuine sutures, at
least with very few
exceptions ; as per-
haps the elephant,
and the duck-billed
animal, (ornitho-
rhyncus.)

2. Jaws furnish-
ed with teeth.

Except the ant-
eaters, the mam's,
the balaena (whale.)

3. An upper jaw,
which does not
move.

Those of birds are
distinguished by :

1. A skull which
has not real sutures,
at least in the adult.

2. A bill without
teeth.

3. An upper jaw,
which does move.

There are some
exceptions, viz. the
rhinoceros bird.

4. An os inter- 4. No os inter-
maxillare. maxillare.

5. Two occipital 5. A single occi-
condyles. pital condyle.

6. Seven cervical 6. More than se-
vertebrae. ven cervical verte-

Except the three- brae,
toed sloth, and some
cetacea.

7. Moveable dor-
sal vertebrae.

8. A pelvis closed
in front.

Except the ant-
eaters ; which have
it open : and the
cetacea, which have
none.

7. Motionless dor-
sal vertebrae.

8. A pelvis open
anteriorly.

Except the os-
trich.

9. True clavicles 9. Clavicles con-
in a few genera stantly ; and almost
only. as universally the

forklike bone.

The structure of the cranium presents
a very remarkable singularity in the
elephant. Its two tables are separated
from each other, to a considerable extent,
by numerous bony processes; between

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

which are formed a vast number of cells,
communicating with the throat by me ms
of the eustachian tube, anil filled with air,
instead of the bloody or medullary sub-
stance which occupies the diploe of ani-
mals The use of this structure in in-
creasing- the surface for attachment of
those large muscles, which belong to the
lower jaw, proboscis and neck, and in
augmenting the mechanical power of
these muscles, by removing their attach-
ments to a greater distance from the cen-
tre of motion, has been very ingeniously
explained by Camper. ((Euvres, torn. 2.)
These advantages are attained by the
cellular structure which we have just
described, without augmenting the weight
of the head, and this precaution is parti-
cularly necessary in the present instance,
as the head is on other accounts more
heavy and massy in this than in any other
animal. The air cells of birds, in gene-
ral, and particularly those which pervade
the cranium in the ostrich, eagle, and
owl, present examples of a similar for-
mation, attended with the same uses ; viz.
those of increasing the bulk and strength
of the bone, and diminishing its weight.

A comparison of the human cranium
with that of animals will lead us to some
interesting conclusions. Daubenton fix-
ed on the situation of the foramen mag-
num occipitale as a point of compari-
son. He draws two lines, which inter-
sect each other in the profile of the scull :
one passes from the posterior margin of
the great foramen, (which, in almost all
mammalia, is also the superior one,)
through the lower edge of the orbit;
the other takes the direction of the
opening itself, beginning at its posterior
edge, and touching the articular surface
of the condyles. He determines, accord-
ing to the angle formed by the junction
of these two lines, the similarity or diver-
sity of the form of crania.

This angle is, however, but an imper-
fect criterion ; for its variations are in-
cluded between 80° and 90° in almost all
quadrupeds, which differ very essentially
in other points. And small variations
occur in the individuals of one and the
same genus.

The variations in the situations of the
occipital foramen are important,, when
viewed in connection with the ordinary
position of the animal's body In man,
who is designed to hold his body erect,
this opening is nearly equi-distant from
the anterior and posterior extremities
of the skull. The head therefore is sup-
ported in a state of equilibrium on the

vertebral column The angle, formed
by the two lines mentioned by Dauben-
ton, is only of three degrees.

Quadrupeds, which go on all-fours,
have the occipital foramen and condvles
situated farther back, in proportion as
the face is1 elongated. That opening, in-
stead of being nearly parallel to the hori-
zon, forms a considerable angle with it :
which, measured according to Dauben-
ton, is of 9 j degrees in the horse. The
weight of the head in these animals is
not therefore sustained by the spine, but
by a ligament of immense strength, which
is either entirely deficient, or so weak as
to have its existence disputed, in the hu-
man subject. This ligamentum muchae,
or cervical ligament, arises from the
spines of the dorsal and cervical verte-
brae, (which are remarkably long for that
purpose,) and is fixed to the middle and
posterior part of the occipital bone. It
is of great size and strength in all qua-
drupeds, but most particularly in the ele-
phant ; where the vast weight of the
head, so much increased by the enor-
mous size of the tusks, sufficiently ac-
counts for its increased magnitude. It is
bony in the mule, probably on account of
the use which the animal makes of its
head, in disengaging and throwing up
the earth.

Animals of the genus Simia and Lemur
hold a middle rank between man, who is
constantly erect, and quadrupeds, whose
body is supported by four extremities.
Their structure is by no means calculat-
ed, like that of man, for the constant
maintenance of the erect posture ; but
they can support it with greater facility,
and for a longer time, than other animals.
Hence, in the orang-outang, the occipital
foramen is only twice as far from the
jaws as from the back of the head ; so
that Daubenton's angle is only of 37°.
It is somewhat larger in the other species
of Simiae, and measure 47° in the lemur.

The general form of the cranium is
most materially influenced by the direc-
tion, and the various degrees of promi-
nence, of the facial bones.

To determine this with greater preci-
sion, Camper instituted the facial line ;
the application of which is most minutely
explained in his posthumous work, "On
the natural Differences of the Features,
&c." Like Uaubenton, he draws on the
profile of the cranium two straight lines,
which intersect each other ; but in dif-
ferent directions from those of the French
anatomist. An horizontal line passes
through the external auditory passage

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

imd the bottom of the cavity of the nose :
this is intersected by a more perpendicu-
lar one, proceeding from the convexity
of the forehead to the most prominent
point of the upper jaw, or of the inter-
maxillary bone. The latter is the proper
facial line ; and the angle which it forms
with the horizontal line determines, ac-
cording to Camper, the differences of the
crania of animals, as well- as the national
physiognomy of the various races of man-

The two organs which occupy most of
the face are, those of smelling1 and tasting,
(including those of mastication, &c.) In
proportion as these parts are more deve-
loped, the size of the face, compared to
that of the cranium, is augmented. On
the contrary, when the brain is large, the
volume of the cranium is increased in
proportion to that of the face. A large
cranium and small face indicate therefore
a large brain, with inconsiderable organs
of smelling, tasting, masticating, &c. ;
while a small cranium, with a large face,
shew that these proportions are revers-
ed.

The nature and character of each ani-
mal must depend considerably on the
relative energy of its different functions.
The brain is the common centre of the
nervous system. All our perceptions are
conveyed to this part, as a sensorium
commune : and this is the organ by
•which the mind combines and compares
these perceptions, and draws inferences
from them ; by which, in short, it reflects
and thinks. We shall find that animals
partake in a greater degree of this latter
faculty, or at least approach more nearly
to it, in proportion as the mass of medul-
lary substance, forming their brain, ex-
ceeds that which constitutes the rest of
the nervous system ; or, in other words,
in proportion as the organ of the mind
exceeds those of the senses. Since then
the relative proportions of the cranium
and face indicate also those of the brain
and the two principal external organs, we
shall not be surprised to find that they
point out to us, in great measure, the
general character of animals, the degree
of instinct, and docility which they pos-
sess. Man combines by far the largest
cranium with the smallest face ; and ani-
mals deviate from these relations, in pro-
por'ion as they increase in stupidity and
ferocity.

One" of the most simple methods
(though sometimes indeed insufficient)
of expressing the relative proportions of
these parts, is by means of the facial line,

which has been already described. This
angle is most open, or approaches most
nearly to a right angle, in the human sub-
ject ; it becomes constantly more acute,
as we descend in the scale from man ;
and in several birds, reptiles, and fishes,
it is lost altogether, as the cranium and
face are completely on a level. The idea
of s'upidity is associated, even by the
vulgar, with the elongation of the snout ;
hence the crane and snipe have become
proverbial. On the contrary, when the
facial line is elevated by any cause which
does not increase the capacity of the cra-
nium, as in the elephant and owl, by the
cells which separate the two tables, the
animal acquires a particular air of intelli-
gence, and gains the credit of qualities
which he does not in reality possess.

Hence the latter animal has been select-
ed as the emblem of the goddess of wis-
dom. The invaluable remains of Grecian
art shew that the ancients were well ac-
quainted with these circumstances ; they
were aware, that an elevated facial line
formed one of the grand characters of
beauty, and indicated a noble and generous
nature. Hence they have extended the
facial angle to 90 degrees in the represen-
tation of men, on whom they wished to
bestow an august character. And in the
representation of their gods and heroes,
they have even carried it beyond a right
angle, and made it 100°.

It must, however, be allowed, that the
facial angle is of chief importance in its
application to the cranium of the human
subject, and of the quadrumana : as vari-
ous circumstances affect the conclusions
which would result from employing it in
other classes of mammalia. Thus, in the
carnivorous, and some of the ruminating
animals ; in the pig, and particularly in
the elephant, the great size of the frontal
sinuses produces an undue elevation of
the facial line. In many of the rodentia,
as the hare, &c. the nose occupies so
large a space, that the cranium is thrown
quite back, and presents no- point on a
front view, from which this line can be
drawn.

The following are the angles formed by
drawing a line along the floor of the nos-
trils, and intersecting it by another, which
touches the anterior margin of the upper
alveoli, and the convexity of the cranium,
(whether the latter point be concealed bv
the face or no ;)

European infant

adult

Adult negro

90«
85
70

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

Orang-outang 67°

Long-tailed monkies ... 65

Baboons 40 to 30

Pole-cat 31

Pug-dog- 35

Mastiff; the line passing along^
the outer surface of the V 41

skull J

Ditto ; inner ditto .... 30
Leopard ; inner surface . . 28

Hare 30

Ram 30

Horse . . ' 23

Porpoise 25

In the third and fourth tables of Cu-
vier's " Tableau Elementaire del'Histoire
Naturelle," the crania of several mam-
malia are represented in profile, so as to
afford a sufficient general notion of the
varieties in the facial angle. A similar
comparative view, in one plate, is given
by White, in his account of the "Regu-
lar Gradation," &c. from the work of
Camper.

A vertical section of the head, in the
longitudinal direction, shews us more com-
pletely the relative proportions of the cra-
nium and face. In the European, the area
of the section of the cranium is four times
as large as that of the face ; the lower jaw
not being included. The proportion of
the face is somewhat larger in the ne-
gro : and it increases again in the orang-
outang. The area of the cranium is about
double that of the face in the monkeys ;
in the baboons, and in some of the carni-
vorous mammalia, the two parts are
nearly equal. The face exceeds the cra-
nium in most of the other classes. Among
the rodentia, the hare and marmot have
it one third larger ; in the porcupine and
the ruminantia, the area of the face is
about double that of the cranium ; nearly
triple in the hippopotamus; and almost
four times as large in the horse. In rep-
tiles and fishes, the cranium forms a very
inconsiderable portion of the section of
the head, although it is considerably lar-
ger than the brain which it contains.

The outline of the face, when viewed in
such a section as we have just mentioned,
forms in the human subject a triangle, the
longest side of which is the line of junc-
tion between the cranium and face. This
extends obliquely, backwards and down-
wards, from the root of the nose towards
the foramen occipitale. The front of the
face, or the anterior line of the triangle,
is the shortest of the three. The face is
so much elongated, even in the simiae,

that the line of junction of the cranium
and face is the shortest side of the trian-
gle, and the anterior one the longest.
These proportions become still more con-
siderable in other mammalia.

The upper jaw-bones of other mam-
malia do not, as in man, touch each other
under the nose, and contain all the upper
teeth ; but they are separated by a pecu-
liar, single, or double intermaxillary bone,
which is in a manner locked between the
former, and holds the incisor teeth of
such animals as are provided with these
teeth. It exists also in the pecora, which
have no incisor teeth in the upper jaw ;
as well as in such genera as have no in-
cisor teeth at all ; viz. the duck-billed ani-
mal and the armadillo. It is even found
in those mammalia which are wholly des-
titute of teeth ; as the ant-eater and the
proper whales. It is joined to the neigh-
bouring bones by sutures, which run ex-
teriorly by the side of the nose and snout,
and which pass towards the palate, closex
to the foramina incisiva. Its form and
magnitude vary surprisingly in several
orders and genera of mammalia. It is
small in many ferae ; as also in the walrus.
In the glires it is remarkably large, on ac-
count of the immense size of their incisor
teeth.

In human crania, at least those of the
foetus and young children, there is a small
transverse slit near the foramen ir.cisi-
vum, of which Fallopius gave the follow-
ing accurate account in the year 1561 :
"I find this division. to be rather a slit
than a suture, since it does not separate
one bone from the other, nor does it ap-
pear exteriorly, nor join two bones,
which is the office of sutures." " Obs.
Anat."

" Hence I was much surprised to find
Vicq D'Azyr, in 1780, discover in this
point an unexpected resemblance be-
tween the cranium of the human subject
and of quadrupeds." Mem. de 1'Acad.
des Sc. 1780.

In the celebrated dispute of the six-
teenth century, whether Galen's osteology
was derived from the skeleton of man or
the ape, Ingrassias argued for the latter
side of the question, from Galen's having
ascribed an intermaxillary bone to the
human subject. And the same author, in
his classical " Commentarii in Galeni L5-
brum de Ossibus," Panorm, 1603, fol. par-
ticularly points out the parts, " where Ga-
len, led astray by the dissection of apes,
deviates from the true construction of
the human boclv."

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

In mammalia which have horns, these
parts grow oh particular processes of cer-
tain bones of the cranium. In the one-
horned rhinoceros, they adhere to a rough
and slightly elevated surface of the vast
nasal bone. The front horn of the two-
horned species has a similar attachment ;
the posterior rests on the os frontis, as
those of the horned pecora do. Two
kinds of struqture are observed in the
latter ; there are either proper horns, as
in the genera of the ox, goat, and ante-
lope ; or bony productions, as in the ge-
nus cervus, which includes animals of the
deer kind : these are also called horns in
English, or sometimes antlers; in French,
bois de cerf. In the former, the external
table of the frontal bones is elongated
into a process, which contains a continu-
ation of the frontal sinuses, except in
the antelope. Its external vascular sur-
face secretes the horn, which covers this
process like a sheath. In the stag kind
(in the male only in' most genera) the
frontal bone forms a short flattened pro-
minence, from which the proper antler
immediately shoots forth. It is renewed
every year, and is covered, during the
time of its growth, with a hairy and very
vascular skin.

Castration, or any essential injury of the
organs of generation,impedes the growth,
alters the form, or interrupts the renewal
of the horns.

The word horn, which is frequently ap-
plied in English to the antlers of the deer
kind, as well as to the real horns of other
genera, would lead to a very erroneous
notion on this subject. The antler is a
real bone ; it is formed in the same man-
ner, and consists of the same elements
as other bones ; its structure is also the
same.

It adheres to the frontal bone by its ba-
sis ; and the substance of the two parts be-
ing consolidated together, no distinction
can be traced, when the antler is com-
pletely organized. But the skin of the
forehead terminates at its basis, which is
marked by an irregular projecting bony
circle ; and there is neither skin nor peri-
osteum on the rest of it. The time of its
remaining on the head is one year: as the
period of its full approaches, a reddish
mark of separation is observed between
the process of the frontal bone and the
antler. This becomes more and more
distinctly marked, until the connection is
entirely destroyed.

The skin of the forehead extends over
the process of the frontal bone when the
antler has fallen : at the period of its rege-

neration, a tubercle arises from this pro-
cess, and takes the form of the future ant-
ler, being still covered by a prolongation
of the skin. The ^ructure of the part
at this time is soft and cartilaginous; it
is immediately invested by a true perios-
teum, containing large and nunr roas ves-
sels, which penetrate the curtilage in
every direction, and by the gradual depo-
sition of ossific matter convert it into a
perfect bone.

The vessels pass through openings in
the projecting bony circle at the base of
the antler : the formation of this part, pro-
ceeding in the same ratio with that of me
rest, these openings are contracted, and
the vessels are thereby pressed until a
complete obstruction ensues. The skin
and periosteum then perish, become dry,
and fall off; the surface of the antler re-
maining uncovered. At the stated period
it falls oft', to be again produced, always
increasing in size.

The skeleton of quad'-upeds deviates
more from that of man. in the form of the
lower jaw bone, than in any other purt.
This diffierc nee consists chiefly in the want
of a prominent chin ; that peculiar cii.*r «c-
teristic of the human countenance, which
exists in every race of mankind; and is
found in no other instance whatever. Man
has also the shortest lower jaw in compa-
rison with the cranium ; the eK phant, per-
haps, approaching the nearest to him in
this character. The same bone is further
distinguished by the peculiar form and
direction of its condyle. The articulation
of these processes vnries according to the
structure of the masticating organs. They
are both situated in the same straight
horizontal line in the ferae ; their form is
cylindrical ; and they are completely
locked in an elongated glenoid cavity,
whose margins are so extended before
and behind the condyle, that all rotatory
motions are rendered impossible, and
hinge like movements only allowed. This
structure is most strikingly exemplified
in the badger, where the cylindrical con-
dyles are so closely embraced by the mar-
gins of the articular cavity, that the lower
jaw (at least in the adult animal) is still
retained in its situation, after the soft
parts have been entirely removed by
maceration. In many herbivorous ani-
mals (in the most extensive sfnse of the
term) these condyles are really rounded
eminences ; viz. in the elephant and bea-
ver. Their surface is flattened in the
pecora, which have also the lower jaw
narrower than the upper, so that the two
sets of teeth do not meet together when

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

the mouth is shut, but are brought o
conti.i bv he- free lateral motion which
takes |)l..-'e 11, rumination.

As the motions of the lower jaw must
be material^ influenced by the ibrm of
its coiKi}les, uicl u\ the manner in which
those processes are connected to the ar-
ticular cavity of the tt-mporul bone, we
shall find, as might have be* n expected,
a close relation between these circum-
stances and the kind of food by which an
animal is nourished. Thus, the lower jaw
of the carnivora can only move upwards
and downwards, and is completely inca-
pable of that horizontal motion which
constitutes genuine mastication. Hence
these animals cut and tear their food in
a rude and coarse manner, and swallow it
in large portions, which are afterwards
reduce'! by the solvent properties of the
gastric juice. Such mammalia, on the
contrary, as live on vegetables, have, in
addition to this motion, a power of mov-
ing the lower jaw backwards and for-
wards, and to either side, so as to pro-
duce a grinding effect, which is necessa-
ry for bruising and triturating grass, and
for pulverising and comminuting grains.
In all these, therefore, the form of the
condyle, and of its articular cavity, allows
of free motion in aJmost every direction.
The teeth may be compared, in the for-
mer case, to scissars ; in the latter, to the
stones of a mill.

THE TEETH.

The jaws of the mammalia, with a very
few exceptions, contain teeth. The pro-
per whales (balaena,) the pangolin (ma-
nis,) and the American ant-eaters, are
the only genera entirely destitute of these
organs.

Animals of the genus balsena (the pro-
per whales) have, instead of teeth, the
peculiar substance called whalebone, co-
vering the palatine surface of the upper
jaw : this resembles in its composition
hair, horn, and such matters.

Tiio lower surface of the upper jaw
forms two inclined planes, which may be
compared to the roof of a house reversed ;
but the two surfaces are concave. Both
these are covered with plates of the
•whalebone, placed across the jaws, and
df scending vertically into the mouth.
They are parallel to each other, and exist
to the number of two or three hundred on
each of ihe surfaces. They are connect-
ed to the bone by the intervention of a
white ligamentous substance, from which
they grow ; but their opposite edge,
which is turned towards the cavity of the

mouth, lias its texture loosened into a
kind of fringe, composed of long and
slender fibres of the horny substance,
which therefore covers the whole surface
of the jaw. This structure probably
serves the animal in retaining and con-
fining the mollusca, which constitute its
food.

The teeth of the ornithorhynchus para-
doxus and hystrix deviate very consider-
ably from those of other mammalia. In
the former animal there is one on each
side of the two jaws : it is oblong, flat-
tened on its surface, and consists of a
horny substance adhering to the gum.
There are likewise two horny processes
on the back of the tongue : these point
forvvards,and are supposed by Mr. Home
to prevent the food from passing into
the fauces before it has been sufficiently
masticated. In the ornithorhynchus hys-
trix there are six transverse rows of point-
ed horny processes at the back of the
palate, and about twenty similar horny
teeth on the corresponding part of the
tongue.

The teeth of the human subject seem
to be designed for the single purpose of
mastication, and hence an erroneous con-
clusion might be drawn, that they serve
the same office in other animals. Many
exceptions must, however, be made to
this general rule. Some mammalia, which
have teeth for the office of mastication,
have others, which can only be consider-
ed as weapons of offence and defence ;
viz. the tusks of the elephant, hippopo-
tamus, walrus, and manati. The large and
long canine teeth of the carnivora, as the
lion, tiger, dog, cat, &c. not only serve
as natural weapons lo the animal, but en-
able it to seize and hold its prey, and
assist in the rude laceration which the
food undergoes previous to deglutition.
The seal, the porpoise, and other cetacea,
as the cachalot, have all the teeth of one
and the same form, and that obviously not
calculated for mastication. They can only
assist in securing the prey which forms
the animal's food.

As the number and arrangement of the
teeth was made by Linnaeus the basis of
his classification of animals, it may be
worth while to mention, that this anato-
mist gives the name of primores to the
front, or incisor teeth ; and of laniarii to
the canine or cuspidati. The term of
tusks is applied to such teeth as extend
out of the cavity of the mouth.

Certain classes of the teeth are entirely
wanting in some orders, classes, and ge-
nera of quadrupeds ; and in other in-
stances, the different descriptions of teeth,

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

particularly the canine and molares, are
separated by considerable intervals. There
is no animal in which these parts are of
such equal height and such uniform ar-
rangement as in man.

All the three kinds of teeth are found
in the quadrumana, the carnivora, the
pachydermata (excepting the two-horned
rhinoceros and elephant,) the horse, and
those ruminating animals which have no
horns.

Cuvier states, that the teeth of an
animal, whose bones are found in a fos-
sil state, resemble those of man, in be-
ing arranged in a continued and unbroken
series.

In the simiae, carnivora, and all such
as have canines longer than the other
teeth, there is at least one vacancy in
each jaw, for lodging the cuspidatus of
the opposite jaw. There is a vacancy be-
hind each canine in the bear.

The horned ruminating animals not
only want entirely the upper incisors, but
they are also destitute of cuspidati, ex-
cept the stag, which has rudiments of these
teeth ; and the musk (moschus moschi-
fer) where they are very long, and cur-
ved in the upper jaw.

Between the incisors and grinders of
the horse, a very large vacancy is left,
in the middle of which a small canine
tooth, termed the tusk, is found in the
male animal; but very rarely in the fe-
male.

The elephant has grinders and two
tusks in the upper jaw ; but the former
only in the -lower. The immense tusks
belong properly to the male animal, as
they are so small in the female, generally
speaking, as not to pass the margin of the
lip. (Corse, in Phil. Trans. 1799, part 2.
p. 208.)

The sloths have grinding and canine
teeth, without incisors. The dolphin and
porpoise have small conical teeth, all of
one size and shape, arranged in a conti-
nued line throughout the alveolar margin
of both jaws. The cachalot (physeter
macrocephalus) has these in the lower
jaw only. The teeth of the seal are all of
one form, viz. that of the canine kind ;
conical and pointed.

The narwhal has no other teeth than
the two long tusks implanted in its os in-
termaxillare ; of which one is so frequent-
ly wanting.

The structure of the incisor teeth, in
the rodentia, deserves attention on se-
veral accounts. They are covered by
enamel only on their anterior or convex
surface, and the same circumstance holds
good with respect to the tusks of the hip-

popotamus. Hence, as the bone wears
down much faster than this harder co-
vering, the end of the tooth always con-
stitutes a sharp culling edge, which ren-
ders it very deserving of the name of an
incisor tooth.

This partial covering of enamel refutes,
as Blake has observed (" Essays on the
Structure, &c. of the Teeth," p. 212,) the
opinion, that the enamel is formed by the
process of crystallization.

The incisor teeth of these animals are
used in cutting and gnawing the "harder
vegetable substances, for which their
above-mentioned sharp edge renders
them particularly well adapted. Hence
Cuvier has arranged these animals in a
particular order, by the name of rodentia,
or the gnawers. As this employment
subjects the teeth to immense friction
and mechanical attrition, they wear away
very rapidly, and would soon be con-
sumed, if they did not possess a power
of growth, by which the loss is recom-
pensed.

These teeth, which are very deeply
imbedded in the jaw, are hollow inter-
nally, just like a human tooth which is
not yet completely formed. Their cavity
is tilled with a vascular pulp, similar to
that on which the bone of a tooth is form-
ed ; this makes a constant addition of new
substance on the interior of the tooth,
which advances to supply the part worn
down. The covering of enamel extends
over that part of the tooth which is con-
tained in the jaw, as we might naturally
expect : for this must be protruded at
some future period, to supply the loss of
the anterior portion. Although these
teeth are very deeply implanted in the
maxillary bones, they can hardly be said
to possess a fang or root ; for the form
of the part is the same throughout ; the
covering of enamel is likewise continu-
ed ; and that part, which at one period is
contained in the jaw, and would form the
fang, is afterwards protruded, to constitute
the body of the tooth.

The constant growth of these teeth
therefore proceeds in the same manner,
and is effected on the same principles, as
the original formation of any tooth ; and
can by no means furnish an argument for
the existence of vessels in the substance
of the part.

We cannot help being struck with the
great size of these teeth, compared with
the others of the same animal, or even
with the bulk of the animal. Their
length in the lower jaw nearly equals
that of the jaw itself, although a small
proportion only of this length appears

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

through the gum. They represent the
segment of a circle, and are contained in
a canal of the bone, which descends un-
der the sockets of the grinders, and then
mounts up, in some instances, to the root
of the coronoid process : hence, although
their anterior cutting edge is in the front of
the mouth, the posterior extremity is
behind all the grinding teeth. No ani-
mal exhibits this structure better than
the rat. The beaver also affords a good
specimen of it on a larger scale. It has
been drawn in this animal by Blake,
(" Essay on the structure, &c. of the
teeth.") The tooth does not extend so far
in the upper jaw ; it is there implanted in
the intermaxillary bone, and terminates
over the first grinder.

The observations which have been
made respecting the constant growth of
the incisor teeth of the glires will apply
also to the tusks of the elephant. These
are hollow internally, through the greater
part of their length, and the cavity con-
tains a vascular pulp, which makes con-
stant additions of successive layers, as
the tusk is worn down. One of the ele-
phants at Exeter Change is said to. have
nearly bled to death from a fracture of
the tusk, and consequent laceration of the
vessels of the pulp. The tusks of the
hippopotamus, and probably all other
teeth of this description, grow in the same
marfner. Farther and more accurate ob-
servation may hereafter shew, that the
same mode of growth obtains also in
other classes of teeth, when they are ex-
posed to great friction. Something simi-
lar may certainly be observed in the grin-
ders of the horse. The tooth is not finish-
ed when it cuts the gum : the lower part
of its body is completed, while the upper
part is worn away in mastication ; and
the proper fang is not added till long
after. Hence we can never get one of
these teeth in a perfect state, for if the
part out of the gum is complete, the
rest of the body is imperfect ; and
there are no fangs : on the contrary,
when the fangs are formed, much of the
body has been worn away in mastica-
tion. Blake also asserts, that this struc-
ture is found in the grinders of the beaver,
(p. 99.)

The narwhal is particularly distinguish-
ed by its long and spiral tusk. The ani-
mal is found so constantly with only one
tusk, that it has been called, in common
language, the sea-unicon ; and Linnxus
has even given it a similar appellation,
that of monodon. Yet there can be no

VOL. III.

doubt that it possesses originally two of
these; one in either jaw bone-, and that
which is wanting must have been lost by
some accidental circumstance, as we
can easily suppose, (" Shaw's Zoology,"
vol. ii. p. 473.) These tusks often equal
in length that of the animal's body :
which may be 18 feet or more : yet they
are .always slender.

In many baboons, and most particular-
ly in the larger predaceous mammalia,
the canine teeth are of a terrific size; in
the latter animals, the whole profile of
the anterior part of the cranium forms a
continuous line with these teeth ; which
is very visible in the tiger. The canine
tusks of the babiroussa, which are very
long, and recurved so as nearly to de-
scribe a complete circle, present the
most curious structure. Their utility to
the animal appears quite obscure, when
their length, direction, and smallness, are
considered.

The distribution of the enamel and
bony substance varies in the teeth of
different animals, and even in the
different orders of teeth in the same
animal.

All the teeth of the carnivora, and the
incisors of the ruminating animals, have
the crown only covered with enamel, as
in the human subject. The immense
fossil grinders of the animal incognitum,
or mammoth, have a similar distribution of
this substance.

The grinders of graminivorous quadru-
peds, and the incisors also of the horse,
have processes of enamel descending
into the substance of the tooth. These
organs have also in the last-mentioned
animals a third component part, differing
in appearance from both the others, but
resembling the bone more than the ena-
mel. Blake has distinguished this by the
name of crusta petrosa ; and Cuvier calls
it cement.

The physiological explanation of this
difference in structure is a very easy
and clear one. The food of the carnivora
requires very little comminution before
it enters the stomach : hence the form of
their grinding teeth is by no means cal-
culated for grinding : and as the articula-
tion of the jaw admits no lateral motion,
the molares, of which the lower are over-
lapped by the upper, can only act like the
incisors of other animals. The food of
graminivorous quadrupeds is subject to
a long process of mastication, before it is
exposed to the action of the stomach.
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fift* of *muii*l *r* filkpd u» by vrti»t»
ptttOMu Tb« *Jtt*rk»r rn*m*U und enut*

llu"

MM>n
t-i.« .

''-- ..... «

n ' •!- - - * .- -' •>•• Ut
by lwt» MroOltt'

•I ,MU,Ml. ,«

. .. ,».., . ,.-,-
. n^

< HMM I«»|'IM-I'« <••

•UM , ».!>*•, !,'t ^ >

«• In
• nr* «»

tOOtb»M>th«t <

,. pn-vl.uMM.M.

vni«U MtrOMk

•

uuiu.i,-* Mm

U » I'lU

p-*,»Mh<

»M,M, «1>, .
<M«tM,M

Mi...,: UP

rimaA
ptlMMtai

COMPARATIVE A NATO Ml.

... lu i-cll (lie Ililirr .ill.l mill I I. HIM
n . .1 ill, aU , ,.li I In I, on. <.! lli. l.M.ih

I 'I 111, .1 (III lhe-,e III •.. l..ll.ll« -.111 II-..

,1 111, II I, Ml'. I' , M 11 Hill!. .

.in.l i \l. niliiij; louar.l. lli> lit-. i-., \\ li> i>

III. \ .11 , , ,.||IH « led lop ill, I I he , >p ill.

! . .in . i|ii.d nnml.ei ol ..... nln.uioii'.
|M -n.liii Imir. . \\linliln-.l i o\ , i fix ln'MN
.li. II-. \\ illi in. mi. I, :ui,l lli< n in\. v,l lli. in
\\il It <in . . \v In. It hilt i -.uli

• . innl. •• .ii. it > on-.ohdal. ••. (In- .lill. t
ml (MM tionS, I IK" l">n\ • !,« II'. \ ai \ in
tmnilx i- Irnin lour 1.1 i\vcnl\ •
coidlllj; In III. |i] . ..I (he In. .III. and (he
a.- ,.| ill' annual . lll«-\ ha\ r I.e. II dc

n .1 iiu.li I (li. l< mi nl ,|, uli, nli, :tn.|

h.n a i" .-I, ittd •'•• ••' -ji.ii.ii. i. . MI

in lln lust HI'.:. nice It inn .1, ho\\ .

lie reincinln i . .1. lli.il (In \ .n 0 l»rm, d on

pl-.'i ess, •, ul nne -.IN 'I. |Hll|<-

\\ ll< II I lie ri n.' .1 |i< I I . i a I . e»i|||ili li l\

deposited, (lie ihtl, r.-iii ilentieiili are eon
solidal.'d 1,.j;elli.-|- I lie i.on\ NllclU Ul'C
Ilinleil :il lli, H-li.e.e lit (lie lie,,' III mi I n n i;
OIK , . Hie in\ < sl incuts of cn.tinel are
IOIIK .1 111 like mam,. r . an. I lli. ll|(i r\ ..I
are filled \\ illi Hie HIM. I -.1 1! i-,( a nee , u In. h
n all\ .kscrvcs llic name hestoucd on il
lt\ ( 'n\ n-r. ol c, inenl. Tin pulp i«, tin n
<-|niij;:ile,l, lor th-- purpose of loinim;; the
i-ool'. or l.nij';-. "I llir (onlli. From tin-
pi , nil ir iiio.l. i I ili-iil ili"ii of thr. .in m..l,
\\-lneli \\ ill l»e e\|ilaim-.l in .'. -..ih'., . jneiil
nole, (he Ironl |mrlion <>| the loolfi I, r.
fill (lie };IIIN. ami i'. ciiij -In

l>elorc the had, |. u-i i , e ..... pi, I, U
tonne .1, e\ en In lor. • ..... I,- ol'llie posterior
. |< nl icnh h.iv . i" < n .'ir ululated |'h<-
hack ol' (lie I., nil. does mil aiiprar in (lie
Mionlh until (lie anlei-ioi- parl li.i . '
\\ urn do\\ n even to ( lie I

\ lion, onlal -.,'etion ol die , le|ih:mt'rt
toolli presi ill-, a si en •. o| IM:I-I\\ It.ind1.
ol hone el' (lie toolli, siirronniled h\ QOf
res|ioii(lin;-; |mrlions oi'en.im. 1 llelueen
these are [loition , ol , m il , ;ui(l

the U hole em 1111)1'. renee ol the seel;,

< •(imposed of a thick layer of the iume

\ \. i IK al section in (he longitudinal
din-etion eslnhits the | rm i •,• es o| hone
ujion (In dill. r. ni di nil. nil, riinnin)1; up
IVom the fangs : u vertical li\< r ol t n >
mel is placed helore, and another be-
hind each of these, h' the loolh , | noi
\\<irn hv mas(i( ation, the tun l.ueru of
enamel arc continuous at the part where
the hone tei-m'ni.i: •• in a point ; an.i
1'ront la\erol' one d^nli. n'ni-; r, conUnu-
oir, u ilh (In- hiai k la' < r ol' t in MM r -i .!in;v
one at the root ol' (he loolh , so lh.it Hie
»-nanicl, ascendin,": on the anV-rinr, and

j.;T

llm-.c <>l (lit-

.1. Hi .-ndinj' on id.- po.i, noi , -.nil.., e 01

• i. h d. uli. idn . toi nr. .1 i onh >n. I hn,
(hi oiij'h (hi \\ lio|, tooth ( 'in .1 . | ...... i

inli-l \ . n, . h. I \\ ei n I he a .< . ii.hiii; .on!

• It . . ndiir- p.n lion . ol (lie , n.nii, I

A« Ih. •.ui-lacc ol (In- loolh r, u ol n
dou n in ni.i .1 ii il ion, I In pi .

• n mi. I, i, 'ir.linj; l»y Ih' if -.npi i i,. i hud

IOIIH proniui. nl rulgCN Ol) tllO
liii!- -am .n , . u In, h HIM M adapl il , \
. .11 n,l\ I.. i In ne. nig ttnd OOmininiiiin

nhstam .

Tin- j;i -iinliii;; l..ei, ••., u h< n \\ .n n -.nlh
< I. llll\ lo , \pir., (he en tin. I, pi i-tc'llt t
v. l\ dill, I, 1,1 app, .u UK I in (he A-., ill.
and MCI. an • lephanl'. The pro, |HM ol

enamel in tin- l«i nn i '.p. , ,, -, i -, jn , •„ nl

MaKen.'tl (ivulrt. placeil a. , I os , the tooth
In (he latter tin \ l.n in .. -.. i i. . ol lo . n
|ro«, \\ hn h touch each olhi r m the n.id
(lie ol the loolh.

Il do. •, not appear that . rn-.t i p. I POM
i an . .-,, nlial pal I in (he .Tiinh r. ol
i;rannnnoroir, annual',
ilunoccros do not po.-..ss il,
the enamel (icHCCndn into tin n
and forms a cavity which IN Hllc-d with the

I. mil, Sec. •

Home and Itlake hkeur.e -.late thl»t It
do, >, i, i,| , Xl .1 ,„ Ilirlnppopolamn ,, \vl»cr«
I lire re are internal productions ol enamel
Im! Mr. Ma, u in, \ , lh<- leai n. .1 and in-

gPiiioiH Icciurer on roin|)ar.tiivc timtomy

at Sl Martholonti u '•• I lospilal, lutM found
il in Hinall i|naniii\ on I'M , \tenor iur«
•I'lln loolh n. .r Itl root.

The want of Mtiftfuutory obnervationn

prcM-nts us IVom .•ia\im;' nun h <ni the
OhAllgC of tin- I. , ill, p.niirnlirly in Wild
annn .Is Some . i ion. DUN opinion , ,.| |.,i

Mici- times, an, for instance, Mm ih.- do

Ilicsti. -al- d pi)-; < lianiM --. H .lei lh, and thai
the u ildamin ildor- no', h.\rdl', i, .|nu
i x pi e s eoiitradn lion in tin- pi<- 'iil.ln
TlnTc is no animal ol ihe i I e. . M ninn .h I,
\\ her.- the firs! appearan. . and -.n'

(JUellt reillilX.d of tile ' III I ,k-

place- at so lale a period «l hie us ill MIUO.
The p rmanent le.-lh are ;; ner.dlv
formed in cavities near tin- roois ol UK
temporal^ ones; and I hey since, -.1 lolln-
\ a< an. a. . I. It I.' ihe (| ' ihe

laKcr \ diU'er.-nt mo I- < •!

MI-, m -.ome inslaiiCCS. TllC
adult mol ires of (In- human snhjcct are
formed m the hark of the tuo jaw*,
from v.hich -.ifnalion they ad\ ance «UC«
the front, in proportion
as the ma\ill:it \ l>onrs are lengthened in
that direction. A similar, hut minhmoie

o|,

•! in ih" 'j.«iii,

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

where it was ascertained by the labours
of Mr. Corse, who has explained and
illustrated the subject in a series of beau-
tiful engravings. See " Observations on
the different species of Asiatic Elephants,
and their Mode of Dentition," Phil. Trans.
1792, Part II.

We never see more than one grinder,
and part of another, through the gum
in this oiumal. The anterior one is gra-
dually worn away by mastication : its
fangs and alveoli are then absorbed ; the
posterior tooth coming forwards to sup-
ply its place. As this goes through the
same stages as the preceding grinder, a
third tooth, which was contained in the
back of the jaw, appears through the
gum, and advances, in proportion as the
destruction and absorption of the other
proceed. The same process is repeated
at least eight times ; and each new grin-
der is larger than that which came before
it. The first or milk grinder is compos-
ed of four transverse plates or denticuli,
and cuts the gum soon after birth. The
2d, which has eight or nine plates, has
completely 'appeared at the age of two
years. The 3d, formed of twelve or
thirteen, at six years. From the 4th to
the 8lh grinder, the number of plates va-
ries from fifteen to twenty-three, which
is the largest hitherto ascertained. The
exact age at which each of these is com-
pleted has not yet been made out. But
it appears, that every new one takes at
least a year more for its formation than its
pedecessor.

From the gradual manner in which the
tooth advances, it is manifest, that a small
portion of it only can penetrate the gum
at once. A grinder, consisting of twelve
or fourteen plates, has two or three of
these through the gum, whilst the others
are embedded in the ja\v. The formation
of the tooth is complete, therefore, first
at its anterior part, which is employed in
mastication, while the back part is very
incomplete; as the succeeding laminae ad-
vance through the gum, their formation
is successively perfected. But the pos-
terior layers of the tooth are not employ-
ed in mastication, until the anterior ones
have been worn down to the very fang,
which begins to be absorbed. One of
these grinders can never, therefore, be
procured in a perfect state : for if its an-
terior part has not been at all worn, the
back is not completely formed, and the
fangs in particular are wanting; while the
structure of the back of the tooth is not
completed, until the anterior portion has
disappeared,

A similar kind" of succession, but to
a less extent, has been ascertained by
Mr. Home, in the teeth of the sus JEthi-
opicus. " Observations on the Structure
of the Teeth of Graminivorous Quadru-
peds ; particularly those of the Elephant
and sns ^Ethiopicus," Phil. Trans. 1799,
Part II.

The researches of the same gentleman
have also proved it to exist in the wild
boar to a certain degree ; and have ren-
dered it probable that it occurred like-
wise in the animal incognitum (mam-
moth). " Observations on the Structure
and Mode of Growth of the Wild Boar
and Animal Incognitum." Phil. Trans.
1801, Part II.

It is remarkable, ih.-it the number of
cervical vertebrae in the mammalia should
be constantly seven, although the animals
of this class differ so much in the length
of the neck. A single exception occurs
in the three-toed sloth, which has nine.

The lumbar vertebrae vary much in
number ; the elephant has three, the cam-
el seven, the horse six, and the ass five.
Mules have generally six. The os coc-
cygis is prolonged so as to form the tail
of quadrupeds.

The cavity of the pelvis is so narrow in
the mole, that it cannot hold the parts of
generation, and the neighbouring viscera,
which lie, therefore, externally to the ossa
pubis.

In the kangaroo, and in other marsu-
pial animals, the anterior margin of the
ossa pubis is furnished with a peculiar
pair of small bones for supporting the
abdominal pouch of the female.

Cetaceous animals, having no hind feet,
have consequently no pelvis : but there
is a pair of small bones in the lower part
of the belly, which may be compared to
the ossa pubis.

In a very few mammalia, as some bats
and armadillos, there is a pair of ribs less
than in man ; but in most of the class
these bones are more numerous. The
horse has 18, the elephant 19, and the
two-toed sloth 23 pairs. The sternum is
generally cylindrical and jointed.

BONES OF THE UPPKB EXTIIEMITT.

We may assert as a general observa-
tion, that the four-component parts of the
upper extremities, viz. the shoulder, arm,
fore-arm, and hand, can be clearly shewn
to exist in the interior extremities of all
mammalia, however dissimilar they may
appear to each other on a superficial in-
spection, and however widely they may

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

seem to deviate from the human struc-
ture.

Whenever an animal of one class re-
sembles those ot'u different order in the
form and use of any part, we may be as-
sured that this resemblance is only in ex-
ternals, and that it does not affect the
number and arrangement of the bones.
Thus the bat has a kind of wings; but an
attentive examination will prove, that
these are really hands, with the phalanges
of the fingers elongated. The dolphin,
porpoise, and other cetacea, seem to pos-
sess fins consisting of a single piece. But
we find under the integuments of the fin-
like members, all the bones of an ante-
rior extremity, flattened in their form,
and hardly susceptible of any motion
on each other. We can recognise very
clearly the scapula, humerus, bones of
the fore-arm, and a hand consisting of
five fingers; the same parts, in short,
which form the anterior extremity of
other mammalia. See Tyson's "Anato-
my of a Porpoise," fig. 10 and 11 : also
Blasii " Anatomia Animalium," tab. 51,
fig. 3, 4.

The fore-feet of the sea-otter, seal, wal-
rus, and manati, form the connecting
link between the anterior extremities of
ether mammalia, and the pectoral fins
of the whale kind. The bones are so
aovered and connected by integuments,
as to constitute a part adapted for
the purposes of swimming : but they
are much more developed than in the
latter animals, and have free motion on
each other.

The cold-blooded quadrupeds bear
great analogy in the four component parts,
and in the general structure of their ante-
rior extremities, to the warm-blooded
ones. See Caldesi's " Observations on the
Turtle," tab. 3, fig. 1, 4, 5.

The bones of the wings of birds have a
considerable and unexpected resemblance
to those of the fore-feet of the mamma-
lia. And the fin-like anterior member of
the penguin contains, within the integu-
ments, the same bones as the wings of
other birds.

The clavicle supports the anterior ex.
tremity, and maintains the shouldevat its
proper distance from the front of the
trunk. It exists, therefore, in all such
animals as make much use of these mem-
bers, whether for the purpose of climb-
ing, digging, swimming1, or flying. It lias,
indeed, been supposed to be confined to
Linnaeus's order Primates (in which he
includes man, the quadrumanous ani-
m,als, and bats.) It ^rill he found in the

squirrel and beaver, who use their front
extremities for the purpose of holding
objects, rather than for that of supporting
the body : in the mole, who employs
them for digging, &c. &c. Many other
animals have in its place an analogous
small bone, merely connected to the mus-
cles, and called, by Vicq d'Azyr, os clavi-
culare, to distinguish it from the more
perfect clavicle. This is the case with
most of the ferae, and some glires. It does
Dot exist, on the contrary, in such as Use
their fore-feet merely for the purpose of
progression, since these limbs must be
brought more forwards on the chest, that
they may support that part, by being
placed perpendicularly under it. In the
genera, which hold an intermediate rank
between these, which do not enjoy such
an extensive utility* of the fore feet as the
first division of animals, and are not so
limited in their employment as the se-
cond, the clavicular bones, or imperfect
clavicles, exist.

In ruminating animals, and in the
horse, the metacarpus consists of a sin-
gle bone, called the cannon bone, which
is very long when compared with that of
man. The humerus becomes shorter, it)
proportion as the metacarpus is elongat-
ed ; so that in animals which have a can-
non bone, the os humeri hardly extends
beyond the trunk. Hence the mistakes
which are made in common language, by
calling the carpus of the horse his fore-
knee, Sec.

The radius forms the chief bone of the-
fore-arm in the mammalia, generally
speaking; the ulna is a small slender
bone, terminating short of the wrist in a
point, and often consolidated with the ra-
dius, as in the horse and ruminating ani-
mals. A few genera, which have great
and free use of their anterior extremity,
have the power of promition and supina-
tion. But this power diminishes, as the
fore-feet are used more for the purpose of
supporting the body in standing, and in
progression. In this case, indeed, the ex*
tremity may be said to be constantly ia
the prone position, as the back of the
carpus and toes is turned forwards.

The lower end of the ulna is larger than
that of the radius in the elephant ; but
this circumstance occurs in no other in-
stance.

The radius and ulna exist in the seal,
manati, and whales, but ia a flattened
form.

Several genera of mammalia possess a
hand; but it is much less complete, and
consequently less useful than that of the

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

human subject, which well deserves the
name bestowed on it by Aristotle, of the
organ of all organs. The great superiori-
ty of that most perfect instrument, the hu-
man hand, arises from the size and
strength of the thumb, which can be
brought into a state of opposition to the
fingers, and is hence of the greatest use
in grasping spherical bodies, in taking up
any object in the hand, in giving us a firm
hold on whatever we seize ; in short, in
a thousand offices, which occur every
moment of our lives, and which either
could not be accomplished at all, if the
thumb were absent, or would require the
concurrence of both hands, instead of be-
ing done by one only. Hence it has been
justly described by Albinus as a second
hand, " manus parvamajori adjutrix," de
sceleto, p. 465.

Allthesimiae possess hands; but, even
in those which many be most justly stiled
anthropomorphous, the thumb is small,
short, and weak ; and the other fingers
elongated and slender. In others, as
some of the cercopitheci, there is no
thumb, or at least it is concealed under
the integuments; but these animals have
a kind of fore-paw, which is of some use
in seizing and carrying their food to the
mouth, in climbing, &.c. like that of the
squirrel. The genus lemur has also a
separate thumb. Other animals, which
have fingers sufficiently long and movea-
ble for seizing and grasping objects, are
obliged, by the want of a separate thumb,
to hold them by meaus of the two fore-
paws ; as the squirrel, rat, opossum, &c.
Those which are, moreover, obliged to
rest their body on the fore-feet, as the
dog and cat, can only hold objects by
fixing them between the paw and the
ground. Lastly, such as have the fin-
gers united by the integuments, or en-
closed in hoofs, lose all power of prehen-
sion.

The metacarpus is elongated in those
animals, where the toe only touches the
ground in standing or walking ; and con-
stitutes the part which is commonly call-
ed the fore-leg ; as the carpus is termed
the knee.

The number of metacarpal bones is the
same with that of the fingers or fore-toes,
except in the ruminating animals. Even
in these there are two distinct metacar-
pal bones, lying close together before
birth : the opposed surfaces first become
thinner, then are perforated by several
openings, and at last disappear ; so that
the adult animal has a single cannon
bone, possessing a common medullary
cavity, internally, and marked on the out-

side with a slight groove at the place of
the original separation. There is there-
fore but one metacarpal bone in the adult
for the two toes. The structure of the
metatarsus is the same.

The single finger or fore-toe of the
horse is composed of the usual three
phalanges ; the first, which is articulat-
ed to the cannon, is called the pas-
tern : the 2d is the coronet ; and the
3d the os basis, or coffin bone, on
which the hoof rests. There are also
two sesamoid bones at the back of the
pastern joint; and an additional part,
'called the shuttle-bone, connected to the
coffin,

In those animals which have five
toes, as the carnivora, 8tc. that which lies
on the radial side of the extremity, and
is therefore analogous to the thumb, is
parallel with the others ; and the animal,
consequently, has not the power .of
grasping any object. The last phalanx
in these supports the nail of the animal ;
and sends a process into its cavity.
These parts are so connected, that the
nail is naturally turned upwards, and not
towards the ground : so that its point
is not injured in the motions of the
animal. The phalanx must be bent, in
order to point the nail forwards or down-
wards.

The order of rodentia have generally
five toes ; that which corresponds to the
thumb being the shortest.

The elephant has five complete toes ;
but they are almost concealed by the
thick skin.

The pig has four toes ; two larger
ones, which touch the ground ; and
two smaller behind these, which do
not reach so far. There is also a bone,
which seems to be the rudiment of a
thumb.

The phalanges of the cetacea are flat-
tened, not moveable, and joined together
in the fin.

BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY.

The length of the femur depends
on that of the metatarsus ; and it bears
an inverse ratio to the length of that
part.

Hence it is very short in the horse,
cow, &c. where the same mistakes are
commonly committed in naming the parts
as in the anterior extremity.

The proportions of the thigh and leg
vary in different animals. The latter part
exceeds the former in the human sub-
ject ; and the same remark may be made
respecting the arm and fore-arm. These

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

parts are nearly of the same length in the
orang-outang. Some persons have af-
firmeu that the negro forms a connecting
link between the European and the
orang-outang in these respects. (White,
on the regular Gradation in Man and Ani-
mals, &c.) In some other simiae the leg
and fore-arm exceed the thigh and arm.
In other animals, although there are some
varieties, the leg is generally longer than
the thigh.

The fibula is consolidated to the tibia
at its lower end in the mole and rat. It
only exists as a small styloid bone in the
horse, and becomes anchylosed to the
tibia in an old animal.

The structure of the metatarsus in the
ruminating animals, and the horse, is the
same with that of the metacarpus.

The tarsus of the horse is composed of
six bones ; and is the part known in
common language by the name of the
hock.

Animals of the genus simia and lemur,
instead of having a great toe placed pa-
rallel with the others, are furnished with
a real thumb : i. e. a part capable of being
opposed to the other toes. Hence these
animals can neither be called biped nor
quadruped, but are really quadrumanous
or fourhanded. They are not destined to
go either on two or four extremities, but
to live in trees, since their four prehen-
sile members enable them to climb with
the> greatest facility. So that Cuvier has
denominated them " les grimpeurs pars
excellence. " Lemons d'Anat. Comp. vol.
i. p. 493.) The prehensile tail of seve-
ral species is a further assistance in this
way of life. The opossum, and others of
the genus didelphis, have a similar struc-
ture with the quadrumajia ; and it an-
swers the same purpose. Here, how-
ever, there is a separate thumb on the pos-
terior extremity only, whence Cuvier
calls them pedimanes.

Man is the only animal in which the
whole surface of the foot rests on the
ground ; and this circumstance arises
from the erect stature, which belongs
exclusively to him. In the quadrumana,
in the bear, hedge-hog, and shrew,
(which are called by Cuvier planti-
grades,) the os calcis does not touch
the ground.

The heel of a species of bear belong-
ing to this country, viz. the badger (ur-
sus meles) is covered with a long fur,
which proves that this part cannot rest
on the ground ; although the structure
both of the bones and muscles of the
lower extremity of this animal approach-
es considerably to that of man. The

same fact is stated of the bear itself,
properly so called by the Parisian dis-
sectors.

In other animals the body is sup-
ported upon the phalanges of the toes,
as in the dog and cat ; in the horse and
ruminating animals, no part touches the
ground but the last phalanx. Here the
elongation of the metatarsus removes the
os calcis to such a distance from the toe,
that it is placed midway between the
trunk and hoof.

S1CELKTON OF BIRDS.

The skull, which in the adult has no
sutures, is articulated to the spine by a
single rounded condyle. This structure
gives the head a great freedom of motion,
particularly in the horizontal direction.
It enables the bird to place its bill be-
tween the wings when asleep ; a situation
in which none of the mammalia can place
the snout.

The lower jaw is articulated to the cra-
nium by means of a square bone on each
side, called os quadratum. The superior
mandible, which is completely immove-
able in mammalia, has, with a few excep-
tions, more or less motion in birds. It
either constitutes a particular bone, dis-
tinct from the rest of the cranium, to
which it is articulated, as in the psittaci
(birds of the parrot kind ;) or it is con-
nected into one piece with the cranium,
by means of yielding and elastic bony
plates ; as is the case with birds in ge-
neral. It is quite immoveable in a very
few instances, as the tetrao urogallus
(cock of the woods) and the rhinoceros
bird.

The jaws are entirely destitute of teeth.
The bill may be considered, in some de-
gree, as supplying the place of teeth ;
yet as none of these animals masticate
their food, but swallow it whole, the bill
can only be compared to the incisors of
such animals as use them for seizing and
procuring their food.

It consists of a horny fibrous matter^
similar to that of the nail, or'of proper
horns ; and is moulded to the shape of
the bones which constitute the two man-
dibles, being formed by a soft vascular
substance, covering these bones. Its
form and structure are as intimately con-
nected with the habits and general cha-
racter of the animal, as those of the teeth
are in the mammalia. Hence an enume-
ration of its different figures and consis-
tence belongs property to the department
of natural history, where it forms the
foundation of classical distinctions.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

The accipitres, or rapacious birds, have
it very hard, hooked at the end, and
furnished with a process on either side ;
calculated, therefore, in all respects,
for seizing and lacerating- their prey.
Those of the parrot kind have it also
hard, for bruising the firmer vegeta-
ble fruits ; and the wood-pecker, nut-
hatch, &c. for penetrating the bark of
trees.

Those birds, which take a softer kind
of food, and which require a sense of
feeling in the part, for distinguishing their
food in mud, water, See. have it approach-
ing to the softness of skin. Such are, the
duck, snipe, woodcock, &c.

In several classes, particularly the ac-
cipitres and gallinse, the base of the bill is
covered with a soft skin, called the cire,
of unknown use.

The cervical vertebrae of birds are
very numerous,and have a very free motion
on each other. This great mobility of
the neck enables the animal to touch
every point of its body with the bill ;
and 'thus supplies the want of the pre-
hensile faculty of the anterior extremity.
The sternum is prolonged below into a
vertical process (crista)'for the attach-
ment of the strong pectoral muscles,
which are the chief agents in the act
of flying. In the male wild swan (anas
cygnas) and in some species of the genus
ardea, as the crane, this part forms a pe-
culiar cavity for the reception of a consi-
derable portion of the trachea. The
crista is entirely wanting in the ostrich
and cassowary ; where the sternum pre-
sents, on its anterior or under surface, an
uniform convexity, and this peculiarity
of structure is accounted for by observ-
ing that these birds have not the power
of flying.

The wings are connected to the trunk
by means of three remarkable bones.
The clavicles, which are always strong,
constitute straight cylindrical bones, ar-
ticulated to the sides of the front of the
sternum, and extending straight forwards.
Their anterior extremities are connected
to the sternum, by means of a bone pe-
culiar to birds, viz. the fork-like bone, or,
as it is more commonly termed, the mer-
rythought. (Furcula, in French, la lu-
nette or fourchette.) The scapula, which
is flattened in form, but elongated, ex-
tends backwards from the front of the
clavicle, parallel to the spine. The point
of the fork-like bone is joined to the most
prominent part of the keel of the ster-
num ; and the extremities of its two
branches are tied to the humeral ends of

the clavicles, and the front of the scapu-
lae, just where these bones join each
other, and are articulated with the hu-
merus. Hence it serves to keep the
wings apart in the rapid motions of fly-
ing.

As a general observation, it may be
stated, that the fork is strong and elastic,
and its branches wide, arched, and car-
ried forwards upon the body, in propor-
. tion as the bird possesses strength and
rapidity of flight; and accordingly the
strulhious birds (ostrich and cassowary,)
which are incapable of this mode of pro-
gression, have the fork very imperfectly
formed. The two branches are very
short, and never united in the African
ostrich, but are anchylosed with the
scapu la and clavicle. The cassowary
has merely two little processes from
the side of the clavicle, which are the
rudiments of the branches of the fork.
In the New Holland ostrich there are
two very small thin bones, which are at-
tached to ihe anterior edge of the dor-
sal end of the clavicles by ligaments ;
they are directed upwards towards the
neck, where they are fastened to each
other by means of a ligament, and have
no connection whatever with the ster-
num.

The bones of the wing may be com-
pared, on the whole, to those of the up-
per extremity in man ; and consist of an
os humeri ; two bones of the fore-arm ;
two of the carpus; two, which are gene-
rally consolidated together, of the meta-
carpus ; one bone of the thumb, and two
fingers.

The stork, and some others of the gral-
laes which sleep standing on one foot,
possess a curious mechanism for preserv-
ing the leg in a state of extension, with-
out any, or at least with little, muscular
effort. There arises from the fore -part
of the head of the metatarsal bone a
round eminence, which passes up be-
tween the projections of the pulley, on
the anterior part of the end of the tibia.
This eminence affords a sufficient degree
of resistance to the flexion of the leg,
to counteract the effect of the oscilla-
tions of the body, and would prove an
insurmountable obstruction to the mo-
tion of the joint, if there were not a
socket, within the upper part of the
pulley of the tibia, to receive it when the
leg is in the bent position. The lower
edge of the socket is prominent and sharp,
and presents a sort of barrier to the ad-
mission of the eminence, that requires a
voluntary muscular exertion of the bird
to overcome, which being accomplished,

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

it slips in with S^TIC force, like the end
of a dislocated bone.

SKELETON OP THE AMPHIBIA.

Turtles and tortoises iiave no teeth :
but th-jir jaws art; covered with a horny
substance, somewhat resembling the
horse's noof in the mode of its connection
iviih liit- bone. The cavity containing1 the
brain is extremely small in comparison
with the size of the skull. This circum-
stance is still more remarkable in the cro-
codile, where, in an individual measuring
13 or 14 feet, this cavity will hardly admit
the thumb. The vast muscles of the jaw
fill up the sides of the cranium.

The body of the turtle and tortoise is
provided with two broad and flattened
bony shells, to which the trunk of their
skeleton is consolidated.

Frogs and toads have no teeth. In no
other animal are the jaws of such immense
size, in comparison with the extremely
small cavity of the cranium, as in the cro-
codile. The anterior part of the upper
jaw consists of a large intermaxillary
bone; and the lateral portions of the lower
maxilla are formed of several pieces join-
cd together. The lower jaw is articulated
in a peculiar manner in these animals : it
has an articular cavity, in which a condyle
of the upper jaw is received.

The condyle resembles, in some mea-
sure, the pulley at the inferior extremity
of the humerus (the trochlea, or rotula of
Albinus:) this, at least, is the case in the
skull of the alligator.

The old error, of supposing that the
upper jaw of the crocodile is moveable,
and the lower on the contrary, incapable
of motion, which has been adopted even
by such anatomists as Vesalius and Co-
lumbus, has perhaps arisen from this pe-
culiar mode of articulation. An examina-
tion of the cranium shows, that if the
lower jaw remains unmoved, the whole
remainder of the skull may be carried
backwards and forwards by means of this
joint. And such a motion is proportion-
ally easier in the present instance than in
any other animal, both on account of the
very great relative size of the lower jaw,
as well as from its anomalous mode of ar-
ticulation. There is, however, no motion
of the upper jaw bone, only upon the
bones of the cranium, similar to that
which occurs in most birds, serpents, and
fishes.

The most surprising singularity in the
skeleton of the crocodile consists in an

VOL Tir.

abdominal srenitim, which is quite differ-
ent from tiie thoracic sternum, and ex-
tends from the e.'isn'or.n cartilage to the
pubis, apparently ior the purpose of sup-
porting the abdomi'iul viscera.

Tlie serpents have an upper jaw, un-
connected with the rest of the skuii, and
more or less moveable of itself.

We find in iheir teeth th*e import-
ant and clearly defined difference, which
distinguishes.the poisonous species of ser-
pents from the much more numerous in-
noxious tribes.

The latter have, in the upper jaw, four
maxiiliary bones, oeset with small teeth,
which form two rows, separated by a
considerable interval from each other.
One of these is placed along the front
edge of the jaw ; the other is found more
internally, and is situated longitudinally
on either side of the palate.

The external row is wanting to the poi-
sonous species ; which have in their stead,
much larger tubular fangs, connected
with the poison bladder, and consti-
tuting, in reality, bony, excretory ducts,
which convey the venom into the wound
inflicted by the bite of the animal

It appears, in general, that the number
of vertebrae, in red-blooded animals, is in
an inverse proportion with the size and
strength of their external organs of mo-
tion. Serpents, therefore, which entire-
ly want these organs, have the most nu-
merous vertebrae ; sometimes more than
300.

it may be observed, in confirmation of
this remark, thai the number of vertebrae
is very great in fishes of an elongated
form, viz. in the eel, which has above one
hundred. The porpoise, which has no
organs of motion which deserve mention-
ing, has between sixty and seventy.

Birds, which have such vast power of
locomotion by means of their wings,
have very few vertebrae, if we consider
the anchylosed ones as forming a single
piece. And the frog, with its immense
hind extremities, has a very short spine,
consisting of still fewer pieces.

We should naturally conclude, from ob-
serving the great diversity in the general
form of fishes, that the structure of their
skeleton must be equally various. Tiiey
agree together, however, on the whole, in
having a spine, which extends from the
cranium to the taii-fin ; and in having the
other fins, particularly those of the thorax
and abdomen, Articulated with peculiar
bones, destined to that purpose. They
have in general many more bones uncon-
Q q

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

uected with the rest of the skeleton, than
the animals of the preceding classes.

The cranium in several cartilaginous
fishes, (in the skate for instance) has a
very simple structure, consisting chiefly
of one large piece. In the bony fishes,
on the contrary, its component parts are
very numerous ; amounting to eighty in
the head of the perch. Most of the
latter have a more or less moveable un-
der jaw.

Great variety. in the structure of the
teeth is observed in this class. Some ge-
nera, as the sturgeon, are toothless. Their
jaws, which ape distinct from the crani-
um, form a moveable part, capable of
being thrust for wards from the mouth, and
again retracted.

Those fishes which possess teeth dif-
fer very much in the form, number, and
position of these organs. Some species of
sparus (as the S. probato-cephalus) have
front teeth almost like those of man ; they
are provided with fangs, which are con-
tained in alveoli. In many genera of fishes,
the teeth are formed by processes of the
jaw-bones covered with a crust of enamel.
In most of the sharks, the mouth is fur-
nished with very numerous teeth, for the
supply of such as may be lost. The white
shark has more than two hundred, lying
on each other in rows, almost like the
leaves of an artichoke. Those only which
form the front row have a perpendicular
direction, and are completely uncovered.
Those of the subsequent rows are, on the
contrary, smaller, have their points
turned backwards, and are covered with
a kind of gum. These come through the
covering substance, and pass forward
when any teeth of the front row are lost. It
will be understood from this description
that the teeth in question cannot have any
fangs.

The saw-fish only (squalus pristis) has
teeth implanted in the bone on both sides
of the sword-shapen organ, with which its
head is armed.

In some fishes the palate, in others the
bone of the tongue (as in the frog fish,) in
others (as in several of the ray-kind,) the
aperture of the mouth forms a continuous
surface of tooth.

MOUTH, OESOPHAGUS, AND STOMACH.

We have already shown the most im-
portant circumstances relating to the
mouth. Many species of the genus si-
mia, as well as the hamster, (marmota
cricetus) and some similar species of the

marmot, are provided with cheek poucii-
es, in which the former, who live on trees,
place small quantities of food as a re-
serve : the hitter employ these bags to
convey their winter provision to their
burrows.

The peculiar glandular and moveable
bag1, (bursa faucium,) which is placed
behind the palate, has hitherto been only
observed in the camels of the old world -
and it probably serves to lubricate the
throats of these animals, in their abode
in the dry sandy deserts which they inha-
bit.

The oesophagus of quadrupeds is, dis-
tinguished from that of the human sub-
ject by possessing two rows of muscu-
lar fibres, which pursue a spiral course,
and decussate each other. In those car-
nivorous animals which swallow vora-
ciously, as the wolf, it is very large ; on
the contrary, in many of the larger her-
bivora, and particularly in such as ru-
minate, its coats are proportionably
stronger.

No mammalia possess an uvula, except
man and the simia.

In some herbivora the stomach has an
uniform appearance externally ; but it is
divided into two portions internally, ei-
ther by « remarkable difference in the
two halves of its internal coat, as in the
horse, or by a valvular elongation of this
membrane, as in several animals of the
mouse-kind. This is also the case in the
hare and rabbit, where also the food in
the two halves of the stomach differs
very much in appearance, particularly if
the animal has been fed about two hours
before death.

In these animals the left half of the sto-
mach is covered with cuticle, while the
other portion has the usual villous and se-
creting surface. The left portion of the
cavity may be regarded as a reservoir,
from which the food is transmitted to the
true digestive organ ; and the different
states in which the food is found in the
two parts of the cavity justify this sup-
position. Hence these stomachs form a
connecting link between those of rumi-
nating animals on one side, and those
which have the whole surface villows on
the other.

On the whole internal surface of the
horse's stomach there are found, in vast
abundance, particularly in spring, the
larva: of two species of oestrus ; viz. the
oestrus equi (which Linnaeus called
oestrus bovis,) and the oe. haemorrhoidalis,
the true history of which has been eluci-

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

dated, for the first time in modern days,
by that excellent veterinary surgeon Mr.
Bracy Clark, in the "Transactions of the
Linnaean Society," vol. 3.

These animals, which are called botts,
attach themselves to every part of the
stomach, but are in general most nume-
rous about the pylorus ; and are some-
times, but much less frequently, found in
the intestines. They hang most com-
monly in clusters, being fixed by the
small end to the inner membrane of the
stomach, where they adhere by means of
two small hooks or tentacula. When re-
moved from the stomach, they will at-
tach themselves to any loose membrane,
and even to the skin of the hand : for this
purpose they draw back their hooks al-
most entirely within the skin, till the two
points of these hooks close to each other;
they then present them to the mem-
brane, and keeping them parallel till
it is pierced through, they expand them
in a lateral direction ; and afterwards,
by bringing the points downwards, or
towards themselves, they include a suffi-
cient piece of the membrane with each
hook, and thus remain firmly fixed, for
any length of time, without any further
exertion of the animal. They attain their
full growth about the latter end of May,
and are coming from the horse from this
time to the latter end of June. On drop-
ping to the ground, they soon change to
the crysalis, and in six or seven weeks the
fly appears. This bott is larger and whit-
er than that of the oestrus hsemorrhoidalis,
which has a reddish cast ; but in its struc-
ture, and situation in the animal, resem-
bles the former. It is found, however,
to hang about the rectum, previously to
quitting it,f which the large horse-bott ne-
ver do,es.

Veterinary practitioners do not seem to
have decided, hitherto, whether these
animals are prejudicial to the horse ; nor
even whether they may not be actually
beneficial. Their almost universal exist-
ence at a certain season, even in ani-
mals perfectly healthy, shows that they
produce no marked ill effect; yet the
holes which they leave, where they were
attached to the stomach, could hardly be
made without causing some injurious irri-
tation.

For the mode in which these botts gain
admission into the stomach, as also for a
most interesting general account of their
history and structure, see CEstrus, which
was furnished by Mr. Clark, and from
which the preceding account is borrow-
ed.

The food of carnivorous animals ap«
preaching in its constituent elements
more nearly to those of the animal than
that of the herbivorous tribes, is more
easily reduced into the state which is re-
quired for the nourishment of the body
in the former than in the latter case.
Hence arises a leading distinction be-
tween the stomachs of these classes. In
the latter animals, the oesophagus opens
considerably to the right of the great ex-
tremity, so as to leave a large cul de sac
on the left side of the stomach; and the
small intestine commences near the car-
dia, leaving a similar blind bag on the
right. The food must be detained for a
long time in such a stomach, as the pass-
age from the oesophagus to the pylorus
is indirect, and highly unfavourable to
speedy transmission. Animals of the
mouse kind, and the rodentia, show this
structure very well ; it is very remark-
able in the mus quercinus, (Cuvier, " Le-
£ons," &c-. torn. 5. pi. 36. fig. 11.) In
the carnivora, the stomach, which is of a
cylindrical form, has no cul de sacs ; the
oesophagus opens at its anterior extremi-
ty, and the intestine commences from the
posterior ; so that every thing favours a
quick passage of the" food. Animals
of the weasel kind, which are very truly
carnivorous, exhibit this structure the
most completely. The seal also exem-
plifies it, and the lion. (Cuvier, pi. 36.
fig. 7.)

The most complicated and artificial ar-
rangement, both with respect to struc-
ture and mechanism, is found in the
well-known four stomachs of the rumi-
nating animals with divided hoofs: of
this we shall take, as examples, the cow
and sheep.

The first stomach or paunch, (rumen,
penula, m;ignus ventor, ingluvies, is by
far the largest in the adult animal ; not
so however in the recently born calf or
lamb. It is divided externally into two
saccular appendices at its extremity,
and it is slightly separated into four
parts on the inside. Its internal coat
is beset with innumerable flattened pa-
pill*.

This is followed by the second sto-
mach, honeycomb bag, bonnet, or king's
hood, (reticulum, ollula,) which may be
regarded as a globular appendage of
the paunch ; but it is distinguished from
the latter part by the elegant arrange-
ment of its internal coat, which forms
polygonal and acute-angled cells, or su-
perficial cavities.

The third stomach, which is the small-
est, is called the manyplus, which is a

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

corruption of manyplies (echinus, con-
clave, centipellio, omasum) : it is distin-
guished from the two former, both by its
form, which has been compared to that
of a hedge-hog when rolled up, and by
its internal stmcture. Its cavity is much
contracted by numerous and broad du-
plicatures of the internal coat, which lie
lengthwise, vary in breadth in a regular
alternate order, and amount to about 40
in the sheep, and 100 in the cow.

The fourth, or the red, (abomasum, fa-
liscus, ventriculus intestinaiis) is next in
size to the paunch, of an elongated, pyri-
form shape, with an internal villous coat
like that of the human stomach, with
large longitudinal rugae.

The three first stomachs are connected
with each other, and with a groove-like
continuation of the oesophagus, in a very
remarkable way. The latter tube enters
just where the paunch, the second and
third stomachs, approach each other ; it
is then continued with the groove, which
ends in the third stomach. This groove
is therefore open to the first stomachs,
which lie to its right and left. But the
thick prominent lips which form the mar-
gin of the groove admit of being drawn
together so as to form a complete canal ;
which then constitutes a direct continua-
tion of the oesophagus into the third sto-
mach.

The functions of this very singular
part will vary, according as we consider
it in the state of a groove, or of a closed
canal. In the first case, the grass, &c. is
passed, after a very slight degree of mas-
tication, into the paunch, as into a reser-
voir. Thence it goes in small portions
into the second stomach, from which,
after a further maceration, it is propelled,
by a kind of antiperistaltic motion, into
the oesophagus, and thus returns into the
mouth. It is here ruminated, and again
swallowed, when the groove is shut, and
the morsel of food, after this second mas-
tication, is thereby conducted directly
into the third stomach. During the
short time which it probably stays in
this situation between the folds of the
internal coat, it is still further prepar-
ed for digestion, which process is com-
pleted in the fourth or true digestive
stomach.

The phenomena of rumination suppose
a power of voluntary motion in the part.
And indeed the influence of the will in
the whole function is incontestible. It is
not confined to any particular time, since
the animal can delay it according to cir-
cumstances, when the paunch is quite

full . It has been expressly stated of some
men, who have had the power of ruminat-
ing, (instances of which are not very rare)
that it was quite voluntary with them.
Blumenbach knew two men, who rumi-
nated their vegetable food : both assured
him that they had a real enjoyment in do-
ing this, which has also been observed of
others ; and one of them had the power
of doing it, or leaving it alone, according
to circumstances.

The final purpose of rumination, as ap-
plicable to all the animals in which it
takes place, and the chief utility of this
wonderfully complicated function in the
animal economy, are still completely un-
known. What has been already suggest-
ed on these points is completely unsatis-
factory. The old dream of Aristotle and
Galen, that rumination supplies the place
of incisor teeth, the materials of which
are applied, in these animals, to the
formation of horns, scarcely deserves
mention. Perault and others supposed,
that it contributed to the security of tlu-se
animals, which generally eat much and
are timid, by showing the necessity of
their remaining long employed in chew-
ing in an open pasture. But the Indian
buffalo ruminates, although it does not
fly even from a lion, but rather attacks,
and often vanquishes that animal : and
the wild goat dwells in Alpine coun-
tries, which are inaccessible to beasts of
prey.

The peculiar structure of the stomach
in the camel and lama, which enables
these animals to take at one time a suffi-
cient quantity of water to last them for
two, three, or more days, and thereby
renders them adapted to inhabit the dry
and sandy deserts, which constitute their
natural abode, is highly worthy of atten-
tion. The fluid which they drink is depo-
sited in numerous cells, formed in the
substance of their first and second sto-
machs, by strong bands of muscular fi-
bres crossing each other at right angles.
It should seem that the animal has the
power of closing these cells by the con-
traction of those fibres which form the
mouths of the cavities, or of expelling
the contained fluid by putting the other
portions of fibres in action.

This cellular structure is found in two
parts of the first stomach ; and it occu-
pies the whole of the second. It was
found in a dead camel, that these cavities
would hold two gallons of fluid; but they
were probably more capacious during
life, as the animal in question always
drank six or seven gallons of water every

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

other day, and took more in the interme-
diate time. Mr. Bruce states, in his travels,
that he procured four gallons from one
which he slaughtered in Upper Egypt.
"Shaw's Abridgment of Bruce's Travels."
Ed. 3. p. 371.

As all the food which the animal takes
passes into the first stomach, the water
of the cells in that part becomes turbid ;
but it remains perfectly pure in the se-
cond, where it resides in the greatest
quantity ; which circumstance accounts
for travellers being able to drink it on an
emergency. The muscular bands, which
form the groove described in the ac-
count of the ruminating stomach, are par-
ticularly strong ; and by drawing the
third stomach to the oesophagus, convey
the ruminated food through the second,
without polluting the water in its cells.
Hence the food that has been macerated
in the paunch must be sent back to the
mouth directly from that cavity, without
passing into the second stomach, as it
does in the cow. See '* Observations on
the camel's stomach respecting the water
which it contains," &c. by E. Home, esq.
Philos. Trans 1806.

The structure of these parts in the
lama, according to the account which
Cuvier has given of them, from the
examination of a fetus, does not seem
to differ essentially from that of the
camel.

There is a peculiar glandular body
at the upper orifice of the beaver's
stomach, about the size of a florin, full
of cavities that secrete mucus. It re-
sembles, on the whole, the bulbus glan-
dulosus of birds, and assists in the
digestion and animalization of the dry
food which this curious animal takes, con-
sisting chiefly of the bark and chips of
trees, &c.

According to Cuvier, there is a gland
as large as the head of a man, situated be-
tsveen the coats of the stomach in the
manati (trichechus manatus borealis).
It is placed near the oesophagus, and dis-
charges, on pressure, a fluid like that
of the pancreas, by numerous small open-
ings.

Mr. Home is of opinion that the glandu-
lar structure exists in the stomach of the
sea-otter near the pytorus. Philos. Trans.
1796. pi. 2. And Mr. Macartney has dis-
covered an arrangement of glandular bo-
dies in the dormouse, round the oesopha-
gus, just before its termination, similar in
situation and appearance to the gastric
glands of birds.

The stomach of the pangolin (manis
pentadactyla) is almost as thick and mus-

cular as that of the gallinaceous fowls,
and contains, like that of granivorous
birds, small stones and gravel, which are
probably swallowed for the same purpose
as in those birds.

(ESOPHAGUS AND STOMACH OF BIRDS.

The oesophagus is of immense size in
many carnivorous birds ; considerably
larger indeed than the intestinal canal.
The capaciousness of this tube enables it
to hold for a time the entire fish and large
bones which these birds swallow, and
which cannot be contained in the sto-
mach ; and to facilitate the discharge, by
vomiting the indigestible remains of the
food, which form balls of hair, feathers,
and bony matter.

The oesophagus expands just before
the sternum into the crop, (inglXivies,
prolobus, le jabot,) which is furnished
with numerous mucous or salivary glands,
disposed in many cases in regular rows.
In such birds as nourish their young from
the crop the glands swell remarkably at
that time, and secrete a greater quantity
of fluid. This part is found in land-
birds only, but not in all of these ; it ex-
ists in all the gullinx, and in some birds of
prey.

There is another glandular and secre-
tory organ, much more common than the
crop, belonging, indeed, most probably
to the whole class. This is the bulbus
glandulosus, (echinus, infundibulum, pro-
ventriculus, corpus tubulosum,) which is
situated before the entrance of the oeso-
phagus into the proper stomach, and
whose form and structure vary consider-
ably in the different genera and species.
In the ostrich, for example, its magni-
tude and form give it the appearance
a second stomach. In some other birds,
as the psittaci, ardeae, (crane, stork, &c.)
its appearance is different from that of
the proper stomach, but its size is larger :
while, on the contrary, in gallinaceous
fowls it is much smaller.

This bulbus glandulosus consists of ;*
vast congeries of glands. The oesopha-
gus, of which it is a dilatation, has a
vast number of glandular bodies inter-
posed between its tunics, and entirely
surrounding the tube, so as to constitute
the " Zone of gastric glands" of Mr. Ma-
cartney. These bodies have a hollow
internally, and they open into the ca-
vity of the bulbus by numerous very plain
apertures. The fluid secreted by them
passes into the gizzard, and mixes with
the food.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,

A deviation from the natural struc-
ture, which is completely unparalleled,
occurs in the stomach of the cuckoo.
The gizzard of the bird is covered,
internally, with an abundance of short,
bristle, and spiral hairs, lying close toge-
ther.

The structure of the stomach differs
most widely in the different orders and
genera of this class. It appears merely
as a thin membranous bag, in several of
those which feed on flesh and insects,
when compared with the thick mus-
cular globes of the granivorous genera.
But there are in both many interme-
diate links between these extremes, and
at the same time considerable analogies
in the structures, which are apparent-
ly the mosi opposite. This is particular-
ly observeable in the course of the muscu-
lar fibres, and in the callous structure arid
appearance of the internal coat ; in which
point*, many of what are called membra-
nous stomachs have a great resemblance
to those of the gallinx.

Both parts, but particularly the mus-
cular, are very strong in the gizzard
(ventriculus bulbosus) of gi\*n;vorous
birds. We find here, instead of a mus-
cular coat, four immensely thick and
powerful muscles, viz. a large hemi-
spherical pair at the sides (laterales,) and
two smaller ones (intermedii) at tht two
ends of the cavity. All the four are dis-
tinguished, by the unparalleled firm-
ness of their texture, and by the pecu-
liar colour, from all the other muscles of
the body.

The internal callous coat must be con-
sidered as a true epidermis ; since, like
that part, it becomes gradually thicker
from pressure and rubbing. It forms
folds and depressions towards the cavity
of the stomach ; and these irregularities
are adapted to each other on the oppos-
ed surface. The cavity of this curious
stomach is comparatively small ; its
lower orifice is placed very near the
upper. Every part of the organ is,
indeed, calculated for producing very
powerful trituration ; and this is still
further promoted by the well-known in-
stinctive practice of granivorous birds, of
swallowing small hard stones with their
food.

The end and use of swallowing these
stones have been very differently ex-
plained. Caesalpinus considered it rather
as a medicine than as a common assist-
ance to digestion ; Boerhaave, as an ab-
sorbent for the acid of the stomach ;
Redi, as a substitute for teeth ; accord-
ing to Whytt, it is a mechanical irritation,

adapted to the callous and insensible na-
ture of the coats of the stomach ; Spallan-
zani rejected all supposition of design or
object, and thought that the stones were
swallowed from mere stupidity. There
seems not much sagacity to be discover-
ed in this opinion, when we consider
that these stones are so essential to the
due digestion of the corn, that birds
grow lean without them, although they
may be most copiously supplied with
food. This paradoxical opinion has,
however, been already refuted by J.
Hunter and G. Fordyce. Blumenbach
thinks that the stones kill the grain,
and deprive jt of its vitality, which
otherwise resists the action of the diges-
tive powers. Thus it lias been found that
if the oats and barley given to horses be
previously heated, the animal only re-
quirv:> half the quantity, and thrives
e quaiiy well.

Kept iies and birds have their nostrils
terminated by two longitudinal slits on
the palate ; they have no velum palati,
nor epiglottis.

The oesophagus of the serpent kind is
of immense magnitude ; for these reptiles
swallow animals larger than themselves,
which are retained for a considerable
time in the tube, and descend into the
stomach by degrees, where they are
slowly subjected to the action of the gas-
tric juice. The whole process sometimes
occupies many days, or even weeks.
There is hardly any distinction between
oesophagus and stomach.

From the peculiar formation of the
nose of fishes, and from their respir-
ing by means of gills, their fauces have
no connection with any nasal cavity, or
glottis.

The oesophagus is of great width in
fishes ; and is distinguished with difficul-
ty in many cases from the stomach.
These animals swallow their food whole,
without subjecting it to any mastication ;
and if the stomach will not hold the
whole, a part remains in the oesophagus,
until that which has descended lower is
digested. The alimentary canal is gene-
rally very short ; sometimes extending
straight from the mouth to the anus with
very little dilatation, as in the lamprey
(petromyzon marinus.)

The Crustacea, and some insects, are
furnished with organs of mastication of
similar structure. Their mouth is form-
ed of two or more pairs of jaws placed
laterally. These move from without in-
wards, and vice versa ; whereas those of
red-flooded animals move from above
downwards, and back again. The parts

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

which are termed the lips of insects are
two bodies, of which one is placed above
or in front of the jaws, and the other be-
low or behind them. The palpi or feel-
ers are articulated to the jaws. All in-
sects which have jaws, possess the power
of masticating hard animal and vegetable
substances ; for these parts are of a firm
horny texture, and in many cases are very
large, when compared with the size of
the animal.

The locust (grylli,) the dragon-fly
(libellula,) the beetles, and particularly
the lucauus cervus, or stag-beetle, and
the staphylinus maxillosus, are examples
in which the jaws are very large and
manifest, and often possess denticulated
edges. All the genera of the following
order have jaws ; viz. the coleoptera,
orthoptera, neuroptera, and hymenopte-
ra. The insects of the remaining orders
derive their nourishment chiefly from li-
quids ; which they get either from ani-
mal or vegetable substances by means of
a spiral and tubular tongue, or soft pro-
boscis, as in the lepidoptera ; with a broad
opening, admitting of extension and
retraction (the hemiptera ;) or a horny
pointed tube, containing sharp bristly
bodies internally (the diptera and ap-
?era.)

The stomach of the bee is a transparent
membranous bag, in which the nectar of
the flowers is elaborated and converted
into honey. The animal vomits it up from
this reservoir, and deposits it in the hive.
The stomach of the crab and lobster is
a very singular organ. It is formed on a
bony apparatus, in short, a species of
skeleton, and does not therefore collapse
when empty. To certain parts of this
bony structure, round the pylorus, the
teeth are affixed. Their substance is ex-
tremely hard, and their margin is serra-
ted or denticulated ; as they surround the
tube, near the pylorus, nothing can pass
that opening without being perfectly
comminuted. These bones and teeth are
moved by peculiar muscles.

In those mcHlusca, which possess jaws,
these parts are fixed in the flesh of the
animal, as there is no head to which they
can be articulated. They are two in num-
ber in the cuttle-fish, are composed of a
horny substance, and resemble exactly
the bill of a parrot. They are placed in
the centre of the lower part of the body,
and are surrounded by the tentacula,
which enable the animal to attach itself to
any object. By means of these parts, the
shell-fish, which are taken for food, are
completely triturated. The common snail

and slug have a single jaw, semilunar in its
form, and denticulated. The tritonia has
two jaws, which act like the blades of a
pair of scissars. The other mollusca
possess no organs of this kind, but have,
in some instances, a sort of proboscis ;
as the buccinum, murex, voluta, doris,
scyllsea, &c.

In the worms, properly so called, there
are sometimes hard parts, forming a kind
of jaws or teeth ; thus in the nereis, the
mouth possesses several'calcareous pieces.
The ophrodite (sea-mouse) has a probos-
cis, furnished with four teeth, which it
can extend and retract at pleasure. With-
in the mouth of the leech are three semi-
circular projecting bodies, with a sharp
denticulated edge : by this apparatus the
animal inflicts its wound of the well known
peculiar form in the skin.

The teeth of the echinus (sea-hedge-
hog) are of a very singular arrangement ;
a round opening is left in the shell for the
entrance of the food ; a bony structure,
on which five teeth are placed, fills up
this aperture; and as these parts are
moved by numerous muscles, they form
a very complete organ of mastication.

The stomach of the vermes is, in gene-
ral, a membranous bag, but in some cases
its structure is more complicated. The
helix stagnalis and the onchidia have
gizzards. The aplysia has three strong
muscular stomachs, provided with pyra-
midal bony processes. The latter struc-
tures, together with those of the lobster
and crab, present a new analogy, as Cu-
vier has observed, between the mem-
branes of the intestines and the integu-
ments of the body. This is particularly
strengthened by the annual shedding of
the lobster's teeth, when its crustaceous
covering falls off.

The bull* lignaria has a very powerful
stomach, containing three hard calcareous
shells, by which the animal is enabled to
bruise and masticate the other testacea
on which it feeds.

ON THE INTESTINAL CANAL.

The intestinal canal (which is the most
common part in the whole animal king-
dom after the stomach) is distinguished in
the mammalia by two peculiarities, which
depend on the mode of nutrition. It is
comparatively shorter in carnivorous ani-
mals, and there is also in these less dif-
ference, to external appearance, between
the small and the large intestine than in
the herbivora. Yet these rules are not
without their exceptions ; for the seal has

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

very long, and the sloth very short, intes-
tines ; the badger, which is not a proper
carnivorous animal, and several true her-
bivora, as for instance, the rell-mouse,
(glis esculentus,) have no distinction be-
tween the large and small intestine, &c.

In considering the proportionate
lengths of the intestinal canal, and the
relation which these bear to the kind of
food on which the animal subsists, many
circumstances must be taken into the ac-
count, besides the mere measure of the
intestine. Valvular projections of the in-
ternal membrane ; dilatations of peculiar
parts of the canal ; and a large general
diameter, compensate for shortness of the
intestine ; and vice versa. The structure
of the stomach must also be considered,
as whether it is formed of more than one
cavity ; whether the oesophagus and in-
testine communicate with it in such a
manner as to favour a speedy transmission
of the food, or whether there are cul de
sacs which retain the aliment for a long
time in the cavity. The formation of the
jaws and teeth, and the more or less per-
fect tritu ration and comminution which
the food experiences in the mouth, must
likewise be viewed in connection with
the length and structure of the alimenta-
ry canal.

The whole length of the canal is great-
er in the mammalia than in the other
classes. It diminishes successively, as we
trace it in birds, reptiles, and fishes, be-
ing shorter than the body in some of the
latter animals, which is never the case in
the three first classes.

In omnivorous animals, the length of
the canal holds a middle rank between
those which feed on the flesh and such as
take vegetable food ; thus, in the rat, its
proportion to the body is as 8 to 1 ; in
the pig 13 to 1 ; in a man 6 or 7 to 1. The
diminution in length in the latter case
is compensated by other circumstances,
viz. the numerous valvulac conniventes,
and the preparation which the food un-
dergoes by the art of cookery.

In carnivorous animals, every circum-
stance concurs to accelerate the passage
of the alimentary matter. It receives no
mastication ; it is retained for a very
short time in the stomach ; the intestine
has no folds or valves ; it is small in di-
ameter : and the whole canal, when com-
pared to the body, is extremely short,
being 3 or 5 to 1. In general there is
no caecum.

The ruminating animals present the
opposite structure. The food undergoes
a double mastication, and passes through

the various cavities of a complicated sto-
mach. The intestines are very long ;
27 times the length of the body in the
ram. Hence the large intestines are not
dilated or cellular, nor is there a caecum.
The solipeda have not such a length of
canal, nor is their stomach complicated ;
but the large intestines are enormous, and
dilated into sacculi ; and the caecum is of
a vast size, equal, indeed, to the stomach.
The rodentia, which live on vegetables,
have a very large caecum, and a c'anal 12
or 16 times as long as the body. In the
rat, which can take animal as well as ve-
getable food, the canal is shorter than in,
the other rodentia.

There are some exceptions to the
rule which we have just mentioned, res-
pecting the length of the canal in carni-
vorous and herbivorous animals. The
seal, which takes animal food, has very
long intestines ; the sea-otter resembles
it in this respect, and differs therein most
remarkably from the common otter,
which resembles other carnivorous ani-
mals in the shortness of its intestinal
tube. The length of canal in the former
is twelve times that of the animal, and
only three times and a quarter in the lat-
ter. (Home, in the Philos. Trans. 1799,
part 2.) Whales have likewise a longer
canal than other carnivorous mammalia ;
their stomach is complicated, and the in-
testine has longitudinal f >lds. It seems,
therefore, that a considerable length of
intestinal canal is found in all mammalia
which live much in the water, although
they are carnivorous.

The plantigrade animals, which have
carnivorous teeth, but feed equally well
on vegetables, have a long canal ; but it
is very narrow, and possesses no caecum,
nor distinction of large intestine.

A species of bat (vespertilio noctula)
seems to have the shortest intestinal ca-
nal of any mammalia ; it is only twice the
length of the animal's body. On the
contrary, the rousette (vesp. vampyrus,
Linn. v. caninus, Blum.) which lives en-
tirely on vegetables, has it seven times as
long.

In a few instances, as the beaver and
sloth, the rectum and urethra have a com-
mon termination, which may be compar-
ed to the cloaca of birds. This resem-
blance is the most striking in the orni-
thorhynchus.

A remarkable difference is observed
in the length of the canal between the
wild and domesticated breeds of the
same species. In the wild boar the intes-
tines are to the body as nine to one ; in

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

the tame animal these proportions are as
thirteen to one. In the domestic cat, five
to one ; in the wild cat, three to one ;
in the bull, twenty-two to one ; in the
buffalo, twelve to one. They are, on the
contrary, longer in the wild than in the
tame rabbit ; the proportions in the for-
mer being eleven, and in the latter nine
to one.

The proportion of the intestinal canal
to the length of the body, in birds, is as
two, three, four, or five to one. It is not
ahvays longest and largest in the grami-
nivorous species, as many piscivorous
birds have it equally long.

It is hardly twice the length of the body
in many reptiles ; and not so much in the
frog, although it is nine times as long as
the space between the mouth and the
anus in the tadpole.

The alimentary canal of some fishes is
continued straight from the mouth to the
anus, and does not, therefore, equal the
length of the body. The lamprey, skate,
and shark, are thus circumstanced.

Most birds have two cseca, which are
longer in the gallinae than in the carni-
vorous tribes. The rectum ends in a part
called the cloaca, which is a large mem-
branous bag, containing also the termina-
tion of the ureters, that of the oviduct,
the vasadeferentia, and of a membranous
bag of unknown use, called bursa fabricii.
This also holds the penis, where there is
one.

A1IMEKTART CAITAL OF THE LOWER
ORDERS.

The simple globular hydatid, which is
frequently found in the different viscera
both of man and quadrupeds, has been
supposed by some to be an animal con-
sisting entirely of a stomach. Doubts,
however, have been lately raised, whether
or no this be really an animal. Even if
it were allowed that these bags are ani-
mals, it does not follow that their cavity
is a stomach ; and the attachment of the
young to the sides would rather justify
us in considering it as the organ of gene-
ration.

The hydatid, which is more frequently
found in animals which possess a head
and mouth like the taenia, enabling it to
attach itself to parts, and which can be
seen to move when placed in warm water,
is generally allowed to possess an indepen-
dent vitality. But whether the bag of
water, which forms its body, be a sto-
mach, is certainly doubtful.

The most simple form of an alimentary
cavity exists in the common fresh water

VOL. III.

polype (hydra). It appears to be exca-
vated in the substance of the body, and
has a single opening situated in the cen-
tre of the space surrounded by the ten-
tacula. The nutritive matter soaks im-
mediately into the body, and imparts its
colour to the animal.

The large masses of gelatine, called
medusae, which resemble in form mush-
rooms, and are found floating in the sea,
have a somewhat similar structure. A
stomach is hollowed out in the pedicle ;
and vessels, commencing from its cavity,
convey the nutritious food over the body.
Sometimes the stomach has a simple open-
ing ; in other cases there are branching
tentacula, on which canals commence by
open orifices ; these unite together to
form larger tubes, and the successive
union of these vessels forms at last four
trunks, which open into the stomach, and
convey the food into that cavity. This
very singular structure constitutes a re-
markable analogy to the roots of trees ;
and Cuvier has formed a new genus,
under an appellation derived from this
comparison, viz. the rhizostoma, from
cf'(f> a root, and ««/"«, a mouth.

The star-fish (asterias) has a membra-
nous cavity in the centre of its body,
communicating externally by a single
opening ; two canals extend from this into
each of the branches, or, as they are some-
times called, the fingers of the animal,
where they subdivide and form numerous
blind processes.

The tape-worm (taenia) has a small ca-
nal running on each side of its body ; the
two tubes are joined together by trans-
verse productions at each joint.

The ascaris lumbricoides (round-worm)
has a simple canal running from one ex-
tremity of the body to the other.

The leech (hirudo sanguisuga, or me-
dicinalis) has a short oesophagus and a
very large stomach, divided by nume-
rous membranous septa, which are per-
forated in the centre. It has been ge-
nerally supposed that this animal has no
anus ; but Cuvier says that it possesses
a very small one. Lemons d'Anat. Comp.
torn. iv.p. 141.) Dumeril, on the contrary,
denies its existence. (Zoologie Analyti-
que, p. 298.)

The common earth-worm (lumbricus
terrestris) has a long canal, divided by se-
veral partitions.

The aphrodite aculeata has an intestine
running according to the length of the
body, and sending off on each side seve-
ral blind processes, which enlarge at their
termination.

Jt r

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,

In the proper mollusca, besides the sto-
mach, which has been already noticed,
there is an intestine, seldom of considera-
ble length, making some turns in its
course ; it passes in all the acephalous
mollusca through the heart.

The intestinal canal of insects varies
very much in the different genera and
species. It may be stated, on the whole,
that a long and complicated intestinal tube
denotes that the insect feeds on vegeta-
bles ; while the contrary characters indi-
cate animal food.

Great difference is found, in some in-
stances, between the larva and the per-
fect insect. The voracious larvae of bee-
tles (scarabaei) and butterflies, have intes-
tines ten times as large as the winged in-
sects which are produced from them.

In the dragon-fly (libellula,) which is
very carnivorous, the intestine is not long-
er than the body. There is a small but
muscular stomach.

The orthoptera (which class contains
the locusts, &c. well known for their de-
structive powers) have a long and com-
plicated alimentary apparatus. They have
first a membranous stomach. This is suc-
ceeded by another cavity covered inter-
nally with scales or teeth, and possessing
a very thick muscular coat ; in short, a
true gizzard. Round the end of this the
cjecal processes are attached. There is,
lastly, an intestinal canal, differing in
length and diameter.

The alimentary canal runs straight
along the body in the erustacea, and is
uniform in its dimensions, excepting the
stomach.

ON THE LIVEE, SPLEEN, AND OMEN-
TLM.

The spleen and omentum seem to be
less constantly found in the animal
kingdom than the liver, and to be in a
manner subservient to the latter viscus ;
which, on the contrary, exists in every
class and order of animals that is pro-
vided with a heart and circulating sys-
tem.

It deserves to be remarked here, as a
peculiarity of the liver of some four-
footed mammalia, which live in or about
the sea, namely, the polar bear and some
seals, that it s'eems to possess some poi-
sonous or noxious qualities when employ-
ed for food. Ileernskerk's companions
experienced this, in the former instance,
at Nova Zemlia ; and Lord Anson's squad-
ron, in the latter, on the coast of Pata-
gonia.

The liver of mammalia is in general di-
vided into more numerous lobes ; and the
divisions are carried deeper into its sub-
stance than in the human subject. This
is particularly the case in the carnivora,
where the divisions of the lobes extend
through the whole mass. But the utility,
which Munro has assigned to this struc-
ture, viz. that of its allowing the parts to
yield and glide on each other in the rapid
motions of the animal, carries very little
plausibility with it. " Essay on Compara-
tive Anatomy," p. 11.

In many animals of this class, as the
horse, the ruminantia, the pachydermata,
and whales, the liver is not more divided
than in man.

The ductus coledochus forms a pouch
between the coats of the intestine, for re-
ceiving the pancreatic duct, in the cat and
elephant.

AH the quadrumana, carnivora, and
edentata, have a gall-bladder.

Many rodentia, particularly among the
rats, want it. The tardigrada ; the ele-
phant, rhinoceros, and pecari, among the
pachydermata ; the genus cervus and ca-
melus, among the ruminating animals ;
the solipeda; the trichechus and porpoise
also want this part. It does not exist in
the ostrich and parrot ; but is found in
all the reptiles. Cuvier thinks that it be-
longs particularly to carnivorous animals ;
that it is connected with their habit of
long fasting ; and serves as a reservoir for
the bile.

All the mammalia which want it, ex-
cept the porpoise, are vegetable eaters:
and most reptiles, which universally pos-
sess it, live on animal food.

The liver of birds is divided into two
equal lobes. The hepatic duct opens se-
parately from the cystic ; and its termina-
tion is generally, but not always, preced-
ed by one or more pancreatic ducts, and
followed by that of the cystic duct.

The fundus of the gall-bladder receives
branches from the hepatic duct (" ductus
hepaticystici") ; but the tube sometimes
unites with the cystic, as in the duck.

Some fishes, which are most destitute
of fat in the rest of their body, have an
abundance of oil in their liver, as, for in-
stance, the skate and cod.

The spleen gradually diminishes in size
from the mammalia to fishes. In the por-
poise there are several small spleens, sup-
plied from the arteries of the first sto-
mach. It is always attached to the first,
when there are several stomachs.

In birds it is always near the bulbus
glaudulosus, but does not lie constantly

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

very close to the stomach in reptiles, as
it is found in the mesentery of the frog ;
neither is it very uniformly situated in
fishes.

In the Crustacea the liver is large, and
consists of blind tubes, opening into the
commencement of the intestine. It forms
the soft high flavoured substance of the
crab and lobster.

A liver exists in all the mollusca, and
is very large ; but this class has no gall-
bladder. The liver is supplied with
blood from the aorta, and there is conse-
quently no vena portarum.

It is a completely mistaken notion, that
the black fluid of the cuttle-fish is its bile.
The ink-bag is indeed found between the
two lobes of the liver in the sepia octo-
pus ; and in front of them in the cahnar ;
but in the common cuttle-fish ("sepia
officinalis"), it is at a considerable dis-
tance from this organ.

The real bile is poured, as usual, into
the alimentary canal.

The structure of the pancreas in the
mammalia, in birds, and in reptiles, is
the same, on the whole, as in the human
subject ; its form and size, its colour and
consistence, and its division into lobules,
exhibit some slight and unimportant vari-
ations.

The termination of its duct or ducts is
distinct in birds from that of the D. cho-
ledochus. In the mammalia they generally
open together, or there is a branch termi-
nating in the D. choledochus, and another
opening into the intestine, as in the dog
and elephant ; or they may be quite dis-
tinct, as in the hare, porcupine, and mar-
mot. They may be separate or distinct in
different individuals of the same species,
as in the monkeys.

The skate and shark have a pancreas
similar to that of the three first classes of
red-blooded animals. In other fishes the
situation of this organ is occupied by nu-
merous small tubes, called the caecal ap-
pendices, or pyloric caeca ; which afford a
copious secretion, analogous, no doubt, to
the pancreatic liquor. The internal sur-
face of these tubes becomes very red on
injection, and possesses a glandular and
secreting appearance. Their number va-
ries from one to several hundreds.

The description of the organs which
are concerned in assimilating the food,
and in converting it into chyle, will be
naturally followed by that of the blood-
vessels, which carry it to all parts of the
body; of the organs of respiration, which

subject it to certain important changes ;
and of the absorbent system.

ORGANS OF CIRCULATION-.

A perfect circulating system, to which,
on the one hand, fluids are brought by
the absorbents to be converted into blood;
and from which, on the other side, vari-
ous juices are separated in glands, and
viscera of a glandular structure, appears
to. belong universally and exclusively to
red-blooded animals. A pericardium ex-
ists in all these animals. Parts of such
a system, particularly a heart, and cer-
tain vessels connected with it, are found
in some genera of the white blooded
classes.

It has been supposed that the amphi-
bious animals of this class, and the ceta-
cea, have an open foramen ovale, like that
of the foetus, in their septum auricula-
rum. And the necessity of such an open-
ing has been inferred from their way of
life, since they often pass a considerable
time under water without breathing. This
supposition has been fully refuted by the
repeated dissection of adult animals of
this kind ; which has shewn that an ex-
ception from the general rule very rarely
occurs.

In several genera and species of web-
footed mammalia, and cetacea (that is,
in the common and sea-otters, in the dol-
phin, &c.) particular vessels have been
observed to be considerably and con-
stantly enlarged and tortuous. This struc-
ture has been principally remarked in the
inferior vena cava ; where there can be
no doubt that it serves, while the animal
is under water, to receive a part of the
returning blood, and to retain it until
respiration can be again performed, and
the lesser circulation be thereby again
put in action.

There are some remarkable circum-
stances in the distribution of particular
arteries in certain animals of this class.
We may notice, as the most singular of
these, the rete mirabile, formed by the
internal carotid at its entrance into the
cranium, in several ruminating biscula,
and carnivorous animals; and that divi-
sion of the arterial trunks of the extre-
mities, which has been observed by Mr.
Carlisle in the slow-moving animals, viz.
the sloths, and lemur tardigradus. The
arteries of the arm and thigh, in these
cases, divide, as they leave the trunk,
into numerous parallel branches, which

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

are united again towards the elbow and
knee.

All birds possess a very remarkable
peculiarity in the structure of the heart.
The right ventricle, instead of having- a
membranous valve (such as are found in
both ventricles of mammalia, and also in
the left of birds,) is provided witU a strong,
tense, and nearly triangular muscle. This
singular structure assists in driving the
blood with greater force from the right
side of the heart into the lungs ; since
the expansion of the latter organs by re-
spiration, which facilitates the transmis-
sion of the carbonated blood in mamma-
lia, does not take place in birds, on ac-
count of the connection which their lungs
have with the numerous air-cells, which
will be afterwards described.

Frogs, lizards, and serpents, have a
simple heart, consisting of a single ven-
tricle and auricle.

The structure of this part is very dif-
ferent in the turtle, and has given rise to
more controversy than that of any order
of animals. Their heart possesses two
auricles, which are separated by a com-
plete septum, like those of warm blooded
animals, and receive their blood in the
same manner as in those animals, viz. the
two venae cavse terminate in the right au-
ricle, the pulmonary veins in the left.
Each pours its blood into the corres-
ponding ventricle, of which cavities there
are two : thus the structure of the heart
hitherto resembles that of mammalia.

The characteristic peculiarities which
distinguish the heart of these animals con-
sist in two circumstances : first, both the
ventricles communicate together ; there is
a muscular, and as it were tubular valve,
going from the left to the right cavity, by
means of which the former opens into the
latter. Secondly, the large arterial trunks
arise altogether from the right ventricle
only, (no vessel coming from the left.)
The aorta, forming three grand trunks, is
situated towards the right side and the
upper part ; the pulmonary artery comes
as it were from a particular dilatation,
which is not situated in the middle of the
basis of the heart, but lower ; (it must be
understood that we apply these terms
according to the horizontal position of the
animal.)

We can now comprehend how this won-
derful and anomalous structure, by which
all the blood is propelled from the right
ventricle only, is accommodated to the pe-
culiar way of life of the animal, which sub-
jects it frequently to remaining for along
time under water. For the greater circu-

lation is so far independent of that which
goes through the lungs, that it can proceed
while the animal is under water, and there-
by prevented from respiring, although the.
latter is impeded. In warm blooded ani-
mals, on the contrary, no blood can enter
the aorta, which has not previously passed
through the lungs into the left ventricle ;
and hence an obstruction of respiration
most immediately influences the greater
circulation.

The heart in this class of animals is ex-
tremely small in proportion to the body.
Its structure is very simple, as it consists
of a single auricle and ventricle, which
correspond with the right side of the heart
in warm-blooded animals. The ventricle
gives rise to a single arterial trunk,(which
is expanded in most fishes into a kind of
bulb as it leaves the heart,) going straight
forwards to the branchiae, or organs of re-
spiration. The blood passes from these
into a large artery, analogous to the
aorta, which goes along the spine, and
supplies the body of the animal. It is
then returned by the venae cavx into the
auricle.

It appears that insects possess neither
blood-vessels nor absorbents. Cuvier has
examined, by means of the microscope, all
those organs in this class, which in red-
blooded animals are most vascular, with-
out discovering the least appearance of a
blood-vessel, although extremely minute
ramifications of the trachea are obvious in
every part. And Lyonet has traced and
delineated in the caterpillar, purts infi-
nitely smaller than the chief blood-vessels
must be, if any such existed. " Anatomic
de la Chenille," &c.

Yet insects, both in their perfect and
in their larva state, have a membranous
tube running along the back, in which al-
ternate dilatations and contractions may
be discerned. From this circumstance
it has been supposed to be the heart ; but
it is closed at both ends, and no vessels
can be perceived to originate from it.

It is obvious from these data, that the
functions of nutrition and secretion must
be performed, in the animals which we are
now considering, in a very different man-
ner from that which obtains in the more
perfect classes. Cuvier expresses the
mode in which he supposes growth and
nutrition to be effected, by the term " im-
bibition." And he explains, from this cir-
cumstance, the peculiar kind of respirati-
on which insects enjoy. Since the nutritive
fluids have not been exposed to the atmo-
sphere, before they arrive at the parts for
whose nourishment they are destined, this

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

exposure is effected in the parts them-
selves by means of the air-vessels, which
ramify most minutely over the whole body.
** En un mot, le sang ne pouvant aller
chercher 1'air, c'est Pair, qui va chercher
le sang."

The heart of the Crustacea, according to
Cuvier, has no auricle ; and it is what he
calls an aortic heart. For it expels the
blood into the arteries of the body ; and
this fluid passes through the gills previ-
ously to reaching the heart again. The
different parts of the system are here
found under a mode of connection exactly
the reverse of what we observe in fishes,
where the blood is sent into the gills, and
passes subsequently into the aorta. The
circulating organ in that class is therefore
a pulmonary heart.

According to Cuvier, the cuttle-fish
has three hearts, neither of which pos-
sesses an auricle. Two of these organs
are placed at the root of the two bran-
chiae : they receive the blood from the
body, (the vena cava dividing into two
branches, one for each lateral heart,)
and propel it into the branchiae. The
returning veins open into the middle
heart ; from which the aorta proceeds.

The other mollusca have a simple
heart, consisting of one auricle and ven-
tricle. The vena cava assumes the office
of an artery, and carries the returning
blood to the gills ; whence it passes to
the auricle ; and is subsequently ex-
pelled into the aorta. Here therefore,
as in the Crustacea, the heart is a pulmo-
nary one.

The vermes of Cuvier have circulat-
ing vessels, in which contraction and di-
latation are perceptible, without any
heart. They can be seen very plainly in
the lumbricus marinus. The leech, naias,
nereis, aphrodite, &c. are further exam-
ples of the same structure. This anato-
mist is of opinion that the mollusca, crus-
lacea, and vermes, possess no absorbing
vessels ; and he thinks that the veins ab-
sorb, as he finds them to have communi-
cation with the general cavity of the bo-
dy, particularly in the cuttle-fish Hence
the above mentioned classes will hold an
intermediate rank between the vertebral
animals, which possess both blood-vessels
and absorbents, and the insects, which
have neither.

ABSORBING SYSTEM.

The chyle of birds is transparent : and
there are no mesenteric glands in these
animals.

The lacteals are uncommonly numer-

ous on the intestines and mesentery of
the turtle, in which animal there are no
absorbent glands.

The lymphatics of fishes have neither
glands nor valves.

ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.

The incessant continuation of the great
chemical process, by which oxygen is ex-
changed for hydrogen and carbon, is es-
sentially necessary to the well being of
the greater part of animals. Yet the or-
gans and mechanism, by which this won-
derful function is carried on, vary very
considerably. In the mammalia, after
birth ; in birds, when they have left the
egg ; and in amphibia, when complete-
ly formed ; the chief organ of this func-
tion is the lungs : in fish it is perform-
ed in the gills ; in most insects in their
tracheae ; in the vermes, in analogous,
but at the same time very different
parts.

The respiratory organs of birds consti-
tute one of the most singular structures
in the animal economy, on account of se-
veral peculiarities which they possess ;
but more particularly in consequence of
their connection with the numerous air-
cells, which are expanded over the whole
body.

The lungs themselves are compara-
tively small, flattened, and adhering above
to the chest, where they seem to be
placed in the intervals of the ribs; they
are only covered by the pleura on their
under surface, so that they are in fact on
the outside of the cavity of the chest, if
we consider that cavity as being defined
by the pleura : a great part of the tho-
rax, as well as the abdomen, is occupied
by the membranous air-cells, into which
the lungs open by considerable apertures.
Those of the thorax are divided, at least
in the larger birds, by membranous trans-
verse septa, into smaller portions ; each
of which, as well as the abdominal cells,
has a particular opening of communica-
tion with the air-cells of the lungs, and
consequently with the trachea. The
membranes of these cells, in the larger
birds, are provided here and there with
considerable fasciculi of muscular fibres,
which have been regarded as a substitute
for the diaphragm, which is wanting in
this class of animals. They also serve
very principally, as we may ascertain by
examining large birds in a living state, to
drive back again into the lungs the air
which they receive in inspiration; whence
the repletion and depletion of the thora-
cic cells must alternate with those of the
abdominal cavities.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

Bbides these cells, a considerable por-
tion of the skeleton is formed into recep-
tacles for air in most birds, (for there
are indeed exceptions and considerable
variations in the different genera and spe-
cies.) This structure is particularly mark-
ed in the larger cylindrical bones, as the
scapula, clavicle, and femur. It is also
found in most of the broad and multangu-
lar bones of the trunk, as the sternum,
ossa innominata, dorsal vertebrae, &c.
All these are destitute of marrow in the
adult bird, at least in their middle ; so
that the cylindrical bones form large
tubes, which are only interrupted to-
wards the extremities by a sort of trans-
verse bony fibres : the broad bones are
filled with a reticulated bony texture,
the cells of which are empty. They have
considerable apertures, (most easily
shewn in those extremities of the cylin-
drical bones which are turned towards
the sternum) communicating with the
lungs by small air-cells ; which facts may
be shewn by various experiments on liv-
ing and dead birds.

These receptacles of air probably serve
the purpose of lightening the body of
the bird in order to facilitate its motions.
This effect is produced in most birds to
assist their flight ; in some aquatic spe-
cies for the purpose of swimming ; in
the ostrich and some others, for running-.
Hence we find the largest and most nu-
merous bony cells in birds which have
the highest and most rapid flight, as the
eagle, &c. And hence also the bones of
the bird which has just left the egg are
filled with a bloody marrow, which is
absorbed soon after birth, entirely in
some, in others, particularly among the
aquatic species, at least for the greater
part.

Besides the uses which have been al-
ready pointed out, these receptacles of
air diminish the necessity of breathing
frequently, in the rapid and long con-
tinued motions of several birds, and in
the great vocal exertions of the singing
birds.

The lungs of amphibia are distinguish-
ed from those of warm-blooded animals,
both by a great superiority in point of
size, as well as by a greater' looseness of
texture, arising from the great size of
their air-vessels. In frogs, lizards, and
serpents, the lungs consist of a cavity,
whose sides are cellular. The poste-
rior part of the organ either forms a
mere membranous bag, or else the
cells are larger there than elsewhere.
In the turtle the vesicles are verv

large, but the texture is uniform through-
out.

In the tadpole, and the young of such
lizards as bring forth in water, there are
two organs, which somewhat resemble
the gills of a fish (appendices fimbriatx,
Swammerdam.) These serve for the
purposes of respiration while the animal
lives in the water. They are connected
to the sides of the neck, and hang loose
from the animal ; they are not permanent,
but are gradually withdrawn into the
chest, (within a few days, in the reptiles
of this country, )where their remains may
still be perceived for some time neap tq
the true lungs. Instead of the branchial
opening, by which fishes again discharge
the water which they have taken in at
the mouth, some, tadpoles have for this
purpose a canal on the left side of the
head, near the eye ; which must be dis-
tinguished from the small tube on the
lower lip, by which they attach them-
selves to aquatic plants.

Instead of lungs, fishes are furnished
with gills or branchiae ; which are placed
behind the head, on both sides, and have
a moveable gill cover (operculum bran-
chiale,) which is wanting in the order of
pisces chondropterygii only. By means
of these organs, which are connected
with the throat, the animal receives its
oxyen from the air contained in the wa-
ter ; as those animals which breathe de-
rive it immediately from the atmosphere.
They afterwards discharge the water
through the branchial openings (apertu-
rae branchiales?) and therefore they are
distinguished from animals of the three
preceding classes by this circumstance ;
viz. that they do not respire by the same
way that they inspire.

We have already shewn, in speaking of
the organs of circulation, how the gills
receive the venous blood by means of
the branchial artery, and how this
blood is sent into the aorta after its
conversion into the arterial state. The
distribution of these vessels on the
folds and divisions of the gills consti-
tutes one of the most delicate and mi-
nute pieces of structure in the animal
economy.

Each of the gills consists in most
fishes of four divisions, resting on the
same number of arched portions of
bone or cartilage, connected to the
os hyoides. Generally there is only a
single opening for the discharge of the
water; but in many cases, particularly
among the cartilaginous fishes, there are
several.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

Many animals of this order possess a
single or double swimming bladder;
which has been found in different in
stances to contain azote, hydrogen, and
oxygen. It has not been hitherto deter-
mined, whether it be subservient to any
other functions, besides that well known
one from which its name is derived. In
the mean time, like the air receptacles
of birds, it may be considered, without
impropriety, in the present division of the
work.

It is placed in the abdomen, and close-
ly attached to the spine. It communi-
cates generally with the oesophagus, and
sometimes with the stomach, by a canal
(ductus pneumaticus,) containing in some
instances, as the carp, valves which seem
to allow the passage of air from the blad-
der, but not to admit its entrance from
without.

That white-blooded animals indispensa-
bly require a species of respiration would
have been inferred, by analogy, from the
wonderful apparatus of gills or tracheae,
which have been discovered in most or-
ders of both classes of these beings. But
in many cases direct proof has been ob-
tained on this point : experiment has ac-
tually proved the exchange of carbon for
oxygen.

White-blooded animals are moreover
distinguished from those which have red
blood by this circumstance : that none of
the former, as far as we hitherto know,
take in air through the mouth.

Many aquatic insects, as the genus can-
cer, have a species of gills near the attach-
ment of their legs. The others, and par-
ticularly the land-insects, which consti-
tute, as is well known, by far the greatest
number of this class of animals, are fur-
nished with air-vessels, or tracheae, which
ramify over most of their body. These
tracheae are much larger and more nume-
rous in the larva state of such insects as
undergo a metamorphosis, (in which state
also the process of nutrition is carried on
to the greatest extent) than after the last,
or, as it is called, the perfect change
has taken place.

A large air-tube (trachea) lies under
the skin on each side of the body of lar-
vae, and opens externally by nine aper-
tures (stigmata) : it produces on the in-
side the same number of trunks of air-
vessels (branchiae.) which are distribut-
ed over the body in innumerable ramifi-
cations.

Both the tracheae and branchiae are of
a shining silvery colour ; and their princi-
pal membrane consists of spiral fibres.
The most numerous and minute ramifi-

cations are distributed on the alimentary
canal.

There is great variety in the number
and situation of the external openings, by
which insects receive their air.

In most instances the stigmata are plac-
ed on both sides of the body. The at-
mospheric air enters by an opening at the
end of the abdomen in several aquatic
larvae, and even perfect insects. A very
remarkable change in this respect takes
place in several animals of this class dur-
ing their metamorphosis. Thus in the
larva of the common knats (culex pi-
piens,) the air enters by an opening on
the abdomen : while in the nympha of the
same animal it gains admission by two
apertures on the head.

In the cfess of vermes, which compre-
hends such very different animals, the
structure of the respiratory organs is pro-
portionally various. Some orders, as
those which inhabit corals, the proper
zoophytes, and perhaps the intestinal
worms, appear to be entirely destitute of
these organs : so that if any vital func-
tion, analogous to respiration, is carried
on in these animals, it must be effected
by methods which yet remain to be dis-
covered.

Those vermes, however, which are
furnished with proper organs of respira-
tion, have the same variety in their struc-
ture which was remarked in insects.
Some, as the cuttle-fish, o\ ster, &.c. have
a species of gills, varying in structure in
different instances. But the greatest
number have air-vessels, or trachea.
Several of the testaceous vermes have
both kinds of respiratory organs, lu
some of the inhabitants of bivalve shells,
as the genus venus, the air-vessels lie be-
tween the membranes of a simple or
double tubular canal, found at the ante-
rior part of the animal, and capable of
voluntary extension and retraction. It
serves also for other purposes, as lay-
ing the eggs. The margins of i'ls
mouth are beset with the openings of
the tracheae.

In the terrestrial gasteropodous mol-
lusca, of which we may instance the
snail and slug, there is a cavity in the
neck receiving air by a small aperture,
which can be opened or shut at the will
of the animal. The pulmonary vessels
ramify on the sides of the cavity'.

ORGAN OF THE VOICE.

Aristotle has correctly observed, that
those animals only which possess lungs,
consequently the three first classes of ths

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

animal kingdom, possess a true voice.
Several genera and species even of these
are either entirely dumb, as the anteater,
the manis, the cetacea, the genus testudo,
several lizards, and serpents; or they
lose their voice in certain parts of the
earth, as the dog in some countries of
America, and quails and frogs in several
parts of Siberia.

Most mammalia have the following cir-
cumstances in common : their rim a glot-
tidisis provided with an epiglottis, which
in most instances has a peculiar muscle,
arising from the os hyoides, and not
found in the human subject : the mar-
gins of this rima are formed by the double
ligamenta glottidis (ligamenta thyreoary-
txnoidea) ; between which the ventri-
culi laryngis are formed. The epiglottis
does not exist in most of the but kind :
and in some mouse-like animals, as the
rell-mouse (glis csculentus,) it is hardly
discernible. The superior ligamenta
glottidis, as well as the ventriculi laryngis,
are w anting in some bisulca, as the ox
and sheep.

Some species of mammalia have a pe-
culiar and characteristic voice ; or at
least certain tones, which are formed bv
additional organs. Of this kind are cer-
tain tense membranes in some animals;
and in others peculiar cavities, opening
into the larynx, and sometimes appear-
ing us continuations of the ventriculi la-
ryngis.

The neighing of the horse, for ex-
ample, is effected by a delicate and
nearly falciform membrane, which is at-
tached by its middle to the thyroid car-
lilage, and has its extremities running
along the external margins of the rima
glottidis.

The peculiar sound uttered by the ass
is produced by means of a similar mem-
brane, under which there is an excava-
tion in the thyroid cartilage. There are
moreover two large membranous sacs
openng into the larynx.

The mule does not neigh like the mare
by which it was conceived, but brays like
the ass which begot it. It possesses
exactly the same larynx as the latter,
without any of the peculiar vocal organs
of the mother; a fact which, like many
others, cannot be at all reconciled with
the supposed pre-existence of previous-
ly formed germs in the ovarium of the
mother.

Several apes and baboons, as also the
rein-deer, have on the front of the neck
large single or double laryngeal sacs, of
various forms and divisions, communicat-
ing with the larynx by one or two open-

ings between the os hyoides and thyroid
cartilage.

Some of the cercopitheci, as the C. Se-
niculos, and beelzebub, have the middle
and anterior part of the os hyoides
formed into a spherical bony cavity, by
which the animals are enabled to pro-
duce those terrific and penetrating tones,
which can be heard at vast distances, and
have gained them the name of the howl-
ing apes.

The most striking peculiarity in the
vocal organs of birds, and which be-
longs to all birds, with very few excep-
tions, consists in their possessing what
is commonly called a double larynx,
but which might be more properly de-
scribed as a larynx divided into two
parts, placed at the upper and lower
ends of the trachea. They have also two
rimae glottidis.

The superior, or proper rima glottidis,
is placed at the upper end of the tra-
chea ; but is not furnished with an epi-
glottis. The apparent want of this organ
is compensated in several cases by the
conical papillae placed at both sides of the
rima.

The apparatus which is chiefly con-
cerned in forming the voice of birds is
found in the inferior or bronchial larynx.
This contains a second rima glottidis,
formed by tense membranes, which may
be compared in several cases, particular-
ly among the aquatic birds, to the reed at
the mouth of musical instruments. It is
furnished externally with certain pairs of
muscles, varying in number in the diffe-
rent orders and genera; and with a kind
of thyroid gland. The course and pro -
portionate length of the trachea, and
particularly the structure of the inferior
larynx, vary very considerably in the
different species, and even in the two
sexes, especially among the aquatic birds.
Thus, for example, the tame or dumb
swan (anus olor) has a straight trachea ;
whilst in the male of the wild, or whist-
ling swan (cygnus), this tube makes a
large convolution, which is contained in
the hollow of the sternum. In the spoon-
bill (Platalea leucorodia), as also in the
Fiiasianus motmot, and others, similar
windings of the trachea are found, not en-
closed in the sternum. Thfe males of
the two genera, anas and mergus, have at
their inferior or bronchial larvnx a bony
cavity, which contributes to strengthen
their voice.

A very little comparison of the me-
chanism of wind musical instruments
with the organs of the voice in birds, will
shew how ncarlv thev arc allied to each

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

ether; and it may be observed, that the
sound produced by some of the larger
birds is exactly similar to the notes that
proceed from a clarionet or hautboy in
the hands of an untutored musician. The
inferior glottis exactly corresponds to the
reed, and produces die tone or simple
sound. The superior larynx gives it ut-
terance, as the holes of the instrument ;
but the strength and body of the note de-
pend upon the extent and capacity of the
trachea, and the hardness and elasticity of
its parts. The convolution and bony cells
of the windpipe, therefore, may be com-
pared with the turns of a French horn,
and the divisions of a bassoon ; and they
produce the proper effects of these parts
in the voices of those birds in which they
are found.

UKAIN AND NEKVES, AND ORGANS OF
SENSE.

The parts subservient to the animal
functions, which, constituting the leading
character of animals, have derived their
name from that circumstance, afford to
our observation a more clear and manifest
gradation, from the most simple to the
most compound structure, than any others
in the animal economy.

In some of the most simple animals of
the class vermes, particularly among what
are called zoophytes, little or no dis-
tinction of similar parts (or structures)
can be discerned, and we are unable to
recognize any thing as a particular ner-
vous system, or even as a part of such a
system. The power of sensation and vo-
luntary motion which these possess, as
well as any other order or class of the ani-
mal kingdom, proves that the nervous
matter must be uniformly spread through-
out their homogeneous substance. The
almost transparent polypes (hydra,) which
are often found with a body of an inch
in length, and arms or tentacula of a
proportionate size, appear to consist,
when surveyed in the best light by the
strongest magnifying powers, of nothing
but a granular structure connected into
a definite form by a gelatinous sub-
stance.

In many other vermes, and in insects,
particular nerves can be distinguished,
arising in general from a chord running
the whole length of the body, and called
the spinal marrow, the superior extre-
mity of which part, slightly enlarged,
constitutes the brain. The latter organ,
however, in both classes of cold and red-

VOL. III.

blooded animals, and still more in those
which have warm blood, has a much more
complicated structure, and a far greater
relative magnitude : all animals are, how-
ever, exceeded in both these points by
the human subject, which, according to
the ingenious observation of the learnt- d
Sommerring, possesses by far the largest
brain, in proportion to the size of the
nerves which arise from it.

The vast superiority of man over all
other animals in the faculties of the mind,
which may be truly considered as a ge-
neral distinction of the human subject,
led physiologists, at a very early period,
to seek for some corresponding difference
in the brains of man and animals. They
naturally investigated the subject, in the
first instance, by comparing the propor-
tion which the mass of the brain bears to
the whole body ; and the result of this
comparison in the more common and do-
mestic animals was so satisfactory, that
they prosecuted the inquiry no farther,
but laid down the general proposition,
which has been universally received since
the time of Aristotle, that man has the
largest brain in proportion to his body.
Some more modern physiologists, how-
ever, in following up this comparative
view in a greater number of animals, dis-
covered several exceptions to the general
position. They found that the propor-
tion of the brain to the body, in some
birds, exceeds that of man ; and that se-
veral mammalia (some quadrumana, and
some animals of the mouse kind) equal
the human subject in this respect.

As these latter observations entirely
overturned the conclusion which had
been before generally admitted, Som-
merring has furnished us with another
point of comparison, that has hitherto
held good in every instance : viz. that of
the ratio, which the mass of the brain
bears to the nerves arising from it.

Let us divide the brain into two parts;
that which is immediaely connected with
the sensorial extremities of the nerves,
which receives their impressions, and is
therefore devoted to the purposes of
animal existence. The second division
will include the rest of the brain, which
may be considered as connecting the
functions of the nerves with the facul-
ties of the mind. In proportion then as
any animal possesses a larger share of
the latter and more noble part ; that is,
in proportion as the organ of reflection
exceeds that of the external senses, may
we expect to find the powers of the

S s

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

mind more vigorous and more clearly de-
veloped. In this point of view man is
decidedly pre-eminent : here he excels
all other animals that have hitherto been
investigated.

All the simix, says Sommerring, are
placed far behind man in this respect.
Although the brain in some instances,
particularly among the smaller kinds,
which have prehensile tails, is larger in
proportion to their body than that of the
human subject ; yet a very large share of
that brain is required for the immense
nerves which supply their organs of sense
and mastication. Let us remove that por-
tion of the brain, and a very small quan-
tity will remain.

The researches of the same author on
animals in general have led him to con-
clude, that the quantity of brain, over
and above that which is necessary for a
mere animal existence ; that part, in short,
which is devoted to the faculties of the
mind, bears a direct ratio to the docility
of the animal, to the rank which it would
hold in a comparative scale of mental
powers.

The largest brain, which Sommerring
has found in a horse, weighed \lb. 4oz.
and the smallest, which he has seen in an
adult man; was 2/£. 5£oz. Yet the nerves
arising from the former brain were at
least ten times larger than those of the
latter.

Generally speaking, small animals have
a larger brain in proportion to their body
than larger ones. The pachydermata have
it very small; and in red-blooded animals,
its size is very trifling when compared
with the body.

of the

forms in roan from •£§
body,
some simiae - -
the Mole - - - -
Bear - - - -

Tina-

toTT

Cat ....

Hare ....

. ^

;

Mouse - - -
Elephant - -

Pig - - - *

Horse - - -

Dolphin - - J
Eagle - - -
Sparrow - - -

" 3

' T

' T
• 2

Chaffinch - - -
Redbreast - - -
Blackbird - - -
Canaryt/ird - - -

Cock

Duck - - - -
Goose
Tortoise
Turtle - - -
Coluber natrix
Frog - - -
Shark - - -
Pike ....
Carp - - - -

• - " • -sh

TToT
jlo

Many mammalia possess a bony tento»
rium cerebelli. It is difficult to give a
physiological explanation of the use of
this bony tentorium. The opinion which
has been generally adopted by anatomists,
that the structure in question belongs to
such animals only as jump far, or run
with great velocity, and that it serves the
purpose of protecting the cerebellum
from the pressure of the cerebrum in these
quick motions, is obviously unsatisfactory.
It exists in the bear, which is not dis-
tinquished for its activity ; while several
animals which excel in jumping or spring-
ing do not possess it ; viz. the wild goat,
(capra ibex.) Cheselden ascribes it to
predaceous animals only, ('* Anat. of the
Bones," cap. 8 ;) but it exists in several
others.

We have given these remarks on the
generally assigned use of the bony tento-
rium, because a similar mechanical ex-
planation has been assigned of the falx,
and the tentorium of the human subject ;
viz. that the former protects the hemi-
spheres from mutual pressure, when the
person lies with his head resting on one
side ; and that the latter provides against
the compression of the cerebellum by the
superincumbent cerebrum. These ex-
planations are assigned in the present,
day by anatomists of such distinguished
reputation as Sommerring and Cuvier
(" de Corporis Humani Fabrica," vol. 4,
p. 27. " L£cons d'Anat. compar." torn.
2, p. 178.) If the futility of this piece
of physiology werenotsufficiehtly proved,
by considering that the cranium is accu-
rately filled, and that there is conse-
quently no room for its contents to fall
from one side to the other, it must im-
mediately be rendered manifest by Mr.
Carlisle's case; in which the falx was

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

entirely absent, and the two hemispheres
•united throughout in one mass, without
any perceptible inconvenience during the
patient's life. (" Transactions of a So-
ciety for the Improvement of Medical
ana Chirurgical knowledge," vol. ii. p.
212.) We have met with four instances,
in which the anterior half of the falx
was deficient. This production of the
dura mater commenced in a narrow form
about the middle of the sagittal suture ;
and gradually expanding, had acquired
the usual breadth at its termination in the
tentorium. The two hemispheres ad-
hered by the pia mater covering their
opposed plane surfaces, but were form-
ed naturally in other respects. A want
of the falx has also been recorded by
Garengeot, (" Splanchnologie," torn. ii.
p. 24.)

The brain of the mammalia wants the
digital cavity of the lateral ventricle, and
in general the acervulus of the pineal
gland. Its anterior lobes are elongated
into a process called ihe mammillary, giv-
ing rise to the olfactory nerves. In birds,
reptiles, and fishes, there is a successive
and gradual change towards a more
simple structure ; the brain in these
classes consisting merely of tubercular
eminences. In the lower orders the
brain seems to be really wanting. A
nervous chord runs along the body, and
possesses ganglia at different distances,
from which the nerves arise. In insects
and vermes the upper ganglion of the ner-
vous chord, which represents the brain,
is placed near the mouth, or oesophagus,
and very generally surrounds that tube
by a kind of collar.

ORGANS OF SENSE.

Few subjects in comparative anatomy
and physiology have given rise to more
various and contradictory opinions, than
the organs of sense in some classes of ani-
mals. Much misunderstanding on this
point has clearly arisen from the incon-
siderate and unconditional application of
inferences drawn from the human sub-
ject to animals. Thus it has been sup-
posed that those which possess a tongue
must have it for the purpose of tasting,
and that the sense of smell must be
wanting, where we are unable to ascer-
tain the existence of a nose. Observa-
tion and reflection will soon convince
us, that the tongue, in many cases (in
the ant-eaters among the mammalia, and
almost universally in birds,) cannot, from
its substance and mechanism, be consider-

ed as an organ of taste ; but must be
merely subservient to the ingestion and
deglutition of the food. Again, in several
animals, particularly among insects, an
acute sense of smell seems to exist, al-
though no part can be pointed out in
the head, which analogy would justify us
in describing as a nose.

However universally animals may pos-
sess that feeling which makes them
sensible to the impressions of warmth
and cold, very few possess, like the
human subject, organs exclusively ap-
propriated to the sense of touch, and ex-
pressly constructed for the purpose of
feeling, examining, and exploring the
quahues of external objects.

This sense appears, according to our
present state of knowledge, to exist only
in three classes of the animal kingdom ;
ixz. in most of the mammalia, in a few
birds, and probably in insects

The structure of the organ of touch is
the most perfect, and similar to that of
the human subject in the quadrumana.
The ends of their fingers, particularly of
the poster! or extremities, are coveredwith
as soft and delicately organized a skin as
that which belongs to the corresponding
parts of man.

Several of the digitata are probably pro-
vided with this sense ; the organization
of the under surface of the front toes of
the raccoon (ursus lotor,) and the use
which the animal makes of those parts,
prove this assertion.

It is not so clear that we are author-
ised in considering the snout of the mole
and pig, not to mention the tongue of th«?
solidungula and hisulca, or the snout of
these and other animals, as true organs
of touch, according to the explanation
above laid down.

Much less can we suppose the long
bristly hairs, which constitute the whiskers
of the cat-kind, and other mammalia, to
be organs of touch, in the sense we are
now considering, although they may be
serviceable, when they come in contact
with any object, in warning, and making
the animal attentive. Bats have been
supposed to possess a peculiar power of
perceiving external objt cts without com-
ing actually into contact with then. In
their rapid and irregular flight amidst
various surrounding bodies, they never
fly against them? yet it does not seem
that the senses of hearing, seeing, or
smelling, serve them on these occasions;
for tlv-y avoid any obstacles with equal
certainty when the ear, eye, and nose, are
closed. Hence naturalists have ascribet*.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

a sixth sense to these animals. It is pro-
bably analogous to that of touch. The
nerves of the wing are large and nume-
rous, and distributed in a minute plexus
between the integuments. The impulse
of the air against this part may possibly be
so modified by the objects near which the
animal passes, as to indicate their situa-
tion and nature.

In geese and ducks the bill is covered
with a very sensible skin, supplied with
an abundance of nerves from all the three
branches of the fifth pair. This appara-
tus enables them to feel about for their
food in mud, where they can neither see
nor smell it. None of the amphibia or
fishes seem to possess the sense of touch,
according to the acceptation stated a-
bove.

All the observations and investigations
of the structure of the antennae, those
peculiar organs which exist universally
in the more perfect insects, and of the
use vvhich these animals generally apply
them to, lead us inevitably to the con-
clusion, that they really are proper or-
gans of touch, by which the animal ex-
amines and explores surrounding ob-
jects. Such organs are particular!)7 ne-
cessary to insects, on account of the in-
sensibility of their external coat, which is
generally of a horny consistence, and also
from their eyes being destitute in most in-
stances of the power of motion.

Most of the herbivorous mammalia, par-
ticularly among the bisulca, have their
tongue covered with a firm and thick cuti-
cular coat, which forms numberless point-
ed papillae, directed backwards. These
must assist, according to their consistence
and direction, at least in the animals of
this country, in tearing up the grass.
Animals of the cat kind have their tongue
covered with sharp and strong prickles,
which must enable the animal to take a
firm hold. Similar pointed processes are
found in some other animals ; as in the
bat kind, and the opossum.

There seems to be no doubt, that in all
the mammalia which we have now con-
sidered, the tongue is an organ of taste,
at least towards its anterior part.
' The toothless animals, on the contrary,
as the ant-eater and manis, which swallow
their aliment whole, have a worm-like
tongue, which is obviously capable of no
other use than that of taking their food.

The tongue of the wooclpecker has a
very singular structure, which admits of

its being darted out of the mouth for
some inches : It is used for the purpose
of catching insects, and is horny and
barbed at its extremity. In the frog and
chameleon, the tongue is also the organ
by which the prey is seized. In the for-
mer animal it is long, soft, and covered
with a glutinous slime. In the quiescent
state it lies from before backwards in the
mouth, from which it is darted at the
prey, consisting of insects, which become
entangled by the viscid fluid. The tongue
of the chameleon displays a very curious
mechanism. It is contained in a sheath
at the lower part of the mouth ; and has
its extremity covered with a glutinous se-
cretion. It admits of being projected to
the length of six inches, and is used in
this manner by the animal in catching its
food, which consists of flies, &c. It is
darted from the mouth with wonderful
celerity and precision, and the viscous se-
cretion on its extremity entangles the
small animals which constitute the food
of the chameleon.

ORGAN OF SMELLIJfG.

Two remarkable instances of anomalous
structure in parts connected with the nose
occur in the proboscis of the elephant,
and the blowing holes of the cetacea-
The former organ consists of two canals,
separated from each other by an inter-
vening partition. Innumerable muscular
fasciculi, running in two directions, occu-
py the space between these and the in-
teguments. There are fibres of a trans-
verse course, passing like radii from the
canals to the integuments, and others,
which run in a more longitudinal direc-
tion, but -have their extremities turned
inwards. The former extend the trunk,
without causing any contraction of the
canals ; the latter bend or contract it ;
and both tend to bestow on it that won-
derful mobility which it possesses, in eve-
ry direction.

The more longitudinal fibres are divid-
ed at short intervals by tendinous inter-
sections, which enable the animal to bend
any part of the organ, and to give it any
requisite degree of curvature. The same
structure will confer a power of bending
different parts of the trunk in opposite di-
rections; indeed, there is no kind of cur-
vature which may not be produced by
these longitudinal fibres. These fascicu-
li occupy the external surface of the or-
gan. The transverse fibres are not all
arranged like radii round the canals ; but
some pass across from right to left, and

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

must therefore affect the diameterof those
tubes by their action. The whole of
these muscular fasciculi are surrounded
and connected together by a while, uni-
form, adipous substance. The transverse
ones are not more than a line in thick-
ness. If the number of these which ap-
pears on a transverse section be ascer-
tained, and if those portions of the longi-
tudinal fasciculi, which pass from one ten-
don to another, be reckoned as separate
muscles (for they must have a separate
power of action) the whole trunk will
contain about thirty or forty thousand
muscles, which will account satisfactorily
for the wonderful variety of motions
which this admirable organ can execute,
and for the great power which it is capa-
ble of exerting.

The blowing hole of the whale serves
as well for respiration as for the rejection
of the water which enters with, the food.
In consequence of its situation at the top
of the head, it is easily elevated beyond
the surface of the sea, while the mouth
is usually under water.

The opening in the bones of the head
is divided into two by a partition of bone ;
and is furnished with a valve opening
outwards. On the side of this open-
ing are two membranous bags lined
with a continuation of the integuments,
and opening externally. The water,
which the animal wishes to discharge, is
thrown into the fauces, as if it were to
be swallowed ; but its descent into the
stomach is prevented by the contraction
of the circular fibres of the oesophagus.
It therefore elevates the valve placed at
the entrance of the blowing-holes, and
distends the membranous bag, from which
it is forcibly expelled by surrounding
muscular fibres.

This apparatus occupies the situation,
which in other mammalia is filled by the
nose ; which organ, together with the si-
nuses of the head, the olfactory nerve,
&c. is entirely wanting in these animals.

ORGAN OF HEARING.

Some Mammalia have not an external
ear, particularly such as live in the wa-
ter or under ground.

Most quadrupeds have a peculiar he-
mispherical bony cavity, communicating
with the tympanum, and seeming to hold
the place of mastoid cells.

The ornithorhynchus, whose structure
is in every respect so anomalous, has only
two ossicula auditus.

The cochlea, which belongs exclusive-

ly to the Mammalia, has in some cases
one turn more than in man.

Whales have an organ of hearing, but
the parts are very small.

Birds have no external ear; only a
single ossiculum auditus ; and a short,
obtuse, hollow, bony process, instead of
cochlea.

Reptiles have membranous semicircular
canals and vestibulum ; generally a single
ossiculum audilus, resembling that of
birds ; and in some Instances a tympanum,
and membrana tympani, level with the
surface of the body.

Fishes hav-a a membranous vestibulum
and canals, but no external organs.

THE EYE.

A sensibility to the impressions of
light is common to all those animals,
which in a natural state are exposed to
this element ; it appears at least very
evidently to exist in some of the most sim-
ple zoophytes, as the armed polypes (hy-
dra :) but the power of perceiving the
images of external objects is confined to
those who are provided with eyes for
their reception. Nature has bestowed
on some species, even of red-blooded
animals, a kind of rudiment of eyes, which
have not the power of perceiving light ;
as if in compliance with some general
model for the bodily structure of such
animals. This circumstance at least has
been asserted of the blind rat (marmota
typhlus) among mammalia ; and of the
myxine glutinosa among fishes.

The conjunctiva covering the front of
the eye-ball, in the former animal, is co-
vered with hair, so that the eye, which
is exceedingly small, seems to be com-
pletely useless.

Large animals have small eye-balls in
proportion to their size : this is very re-
markably the case with the whales. Those
which are much under ground have the
globe also very small ; as the mole and
shrew : in the former of these instances
its existence has been altogether de-
nied ; and it it is not in fact larger than a
pin's head.

The eyes of man and the simiac are di-
rected forwards : in the latter animals,
indeed, they are placed nearer to each
other than in the human subject. The
lemul tarsius has them more closely ap-
proximated than any other animal. All
other Mammalia have these organs se-
parated by a considerable interval, and
directed laterally. The same circum-
stance obtains in birds, -with the excep-

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

tion of the owl, who looks straight for-
wards. They are placed laterally in all
reptiles. Their situation varies much in
fishes : they look upwards in the uranos-
copus : they are both on the same side of
the body in the pleuronectes ; hut in ge-
netal their direction is lateral.

The form of the globe varies according
to the medium in which the organ is to
be exerted. In man and the mammalia,
it deviates very little from the spherical
figure. In fishes it is flattened on its an-
terior part ; in birds it is remarkably
convex in front, the cornea being some-
times absolutely hemispherical. The
convexity of the crystalline is an inverse
ratio to that of the cornea. Thus in fishes
it is nearly spherical, and projects
through the iris, so as to leave little or
no room for aqueous humour : the ceta-
cea, and those quadrupeds and birds
which are much under water, have this
part of the same form. The aqueous hu-
mour, being of the same density with the
medium in which these animals are plac-
ed, would have no power of refracting
rays of light which come through that
medium : its place is supplied by an in-
creased sphericity of the lens. In ;>irds
these circumstances are reversed : they
inhabit generally a somewhat elevated
reigon of the atmosphere, and the rays
which pass through this thin medium are
refracted by the aqueous humour, which
exists in great abundance. Man, and the
mammalia, which live on the surface of
the earth, hold a middle place between
these two extremes.

The inner surface of the choroid coat,
which in man is black throughout, is co-
loured very beautifully on the temporal
side of the eye in most quadrupeds, and
this part is called the tapetum.

The pigmentum nigrum is entirely de-
ficient in the eye of the white rabbit,
white ferret, &c. as well as in the va-
riety of the human race called the al-
bino.

The quadrumana alone possess the
foramen centrale of the retina, besides
snan.

Most mammalia possess a membrana
nictitans, or third eyelid, behind which
the eyeball can be drawn, when offended
by any extraneous matter.

Birds are distinguished by having a
bony ring, composed of numerous flat
and over-lapping thin plates, in the sub-
stance of the sclerotica, at its anterior
part.

Another great peculiarity consists in
the marsupium or pecten, which ap-

pears as a large folded process of the
choroid, coming through the retina of
the back of the eye, and running in the
substance of the vitreous humour towards
the crystalline lens, which it does not
quite reach.

The third eyelid, or membrana nicti-
tans of birds, is a thin semi-transparent
fold of the conjunctiva ; which, in the
state of rest, lies in the inner corner of
the eye, with its loose edge nearly verti-
cal, but can be drawn out so as to cover
the whole front of the globe. By this, ac-
cording to Cuvier, the eagle is enabled to
look at the sun.

It is capable of being expanded over
the globe of the eye by the combined ac-
tion of two very singular mus«-les, which
are attached towards the back of the scle-
rotica. One of these, which is called
from its shape the quadratus, arises from
the upper and back part of the si ieroti-
ca ; its fibres descend in a parallel course
towards the optic nerve, and terminate in
a semicircular margin, formed by a ten-
don of a very singular construction ; for
it has no insertion, but constitutes a cy-
lindrical canal. The second muscle, which
is called the pyramidalis, arises from the
lower and back part of the sclerotica to-
wards the nose. It gives rise to a long
tendinous chord, which runs through the
canal of the quadrat us, as in a pulley.
Having thus arrived at the exterior part
of the eyeball, it runs in a cellular sheath
of the sclerotica along the under part of
the eye to the lower portion of the loose
edge of the membrana nictitans, in which
it is inserted.

By the united action of these two mus-
cles, the third eyelid will be drawn jto-
wards the outer angle of the eye, so as to
cover the front of the globe ; and its own
elasticity will restore it to its former situ-
ation.

Two kinds of eyes, very dissimilar in
their structure, are found in insects : one
sort in small and simple, (stemmata ;) the
others, which are large, seem to consist
of an aggregation of smaller eyes ; for
their general convexity is divided into an
immense number of small hexagonal con-
vex surfaces, which may be considered
as so many distinct corneae. The first kind
is found in different numbers in most of
the aptera, as also in the larvae of many
winged insects. When these undergo
the last or complete metamorphosis, and
receive their wings, they gain at the
same time the large compound eyes.
Several genera of winged insects and ap-
tera (as the larger species of monoculi,)

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

,have stemmata, besides their compound
eyes.

The internal structure has hitherto
been investigated only in the large poly-
edrous eyes. The back of the cornea
(which is the part divided in front into
the hexagonal surfaces, called in French,
facettes) is covered with a dark pigment :
behind this are numerous white bodies,
of an hexagonal prismatic shape, and
equal in number to that of the facettes
of the cornea. A second coloured mem-
brane covers these, and appears to receive
the expansion of the optic nerve.

Further investigation is, however, re-
quired, in order to shew how these eyes
enable the insect to see ; and to deter-
mine the distinction between two such
very different organs.

MUSCLES.

The nature and objects of the present
work render it impossible for us to enter
into the details of comparative myology ;
we shall therefore restrain our remarks to
one or two subjects.

The differences which we discern in
the muscles of the lower extremity, be-
tween man and the other mammalia,
arise out of that characteristic feature,
which so strikingly distinguishes man
from all other animals, viz. his erect sta-
ture. The most minute investigation of
this subject will shew us that the erect
position belongs to man only ; and there-
by confirms the elegant observation of the
Roman poet :

Pronaque cum spectent animalia cetera

terram,

Os homini sublime dedit ; ccelwnque luerl
Jussit ; et erectos ad sidera toilers vultus.

In order to enable any animal to pre-
serve the erect position, the following
conditions are required. 1st. That the
parts of the body should be so disposed
as to admit of being maintained with
ease in a state of equilibrium. 2dly. That
the muscles should have sufficient power
to correct the deviations from this state.
3dly. That the centre of gravity of the
whole body should fall within the space
occupied by the feet; and lastly, That
the feet themselves should have a broad
surface, resting firmly on the ground, and
should admit of being in a manner fixed
to the earth. All these circumstances
ar? united in the necessary degree in man
only.

The broader the surface included by

the feet, the more securely will the line of
gravity rest within that surface. The feet
of man are much broader than those of
any animal, and admit of being separated
more widely from each other. The sources
of the latter prerogative reside in the su-
perior breadth of the human pelvis, and in
the length and obliquity of the neck of
the femur, which, by throwing the body
of the bone outwards, disengage it from
the hip-joint.

The whole tarsus, metatarsus, and toes,
rest on the ground in the human subject,
but not in other animals. The simiae, and
the bear, have the end of the os calcis
raised from the surface ; while, on the
contrary, it projects in man, and its pro-
minent portion has a more important share
in supporting the back of the foot. The
exterior margin of the foot rests chiefly
on the ground in the simiae ; which cir-
cumstance leaves them a freer use of their
thumb and long toes in seizing the branch-
es of trees, &c. ; and renders the organ so
much the less adapted to support the bo-
dy on level ground.

The plantaris muscle, instead of termi-
nating in the os calcis, expands into the
plantar fascia in the simiae ; and in other
quadrupeds it holds the place of the flexor
brevis, or perforatus digitorum pedis, pass-
ing over the os calcis in such a direction,
that its tendons would be compressed, and
its action impeded, if the heel rested on
the ground.

The extensors of the ankle joint, and
chiefly those which form the calf of the
leg, are very small in the mammalia, even
in the genus simiae. The peculiar mode of
progression of the human subject suf-
ficiently accounts for their vastly superior
magnitude in man. By elevating the os
calcis, they raise the whole body in the
act of progression ; and, by extending the
leg on the foot, they counteract that ten-
dency which the weight of the body has
to bend the leg in standing.

The thigh is placed in the same line with
the trunk in man ; it always forms an angle
with the spine in animals, and this is often
even an acute one. The extensors of the
knee are much stronger in the human sub-
ject than in other mammalia, as their dou-
ble effect of extending the leg on the
thigh, and of bringing the thigh forwards
on the leg, forms a very essential part in
the human mode of progression.

The flexors of the knee are, on the
contrary, stronger in animals, and are in-
serted so much lower down in the tibia
(even in the simiae) than in the human
subject, that the support of the body on

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

the hind legs must be very insecure, as
the thigh and leg form an angle, instead
of continuing in a straight line.

The glutens maximus, which is the
largest muscle of the human body, is so
small and insignificant in animals, that it
may almost be said not to exist. This
muscle, which forms the great bulk of the
human buttock, extends the pelvis on the
thighs in standing; and, assisted by the
other two glutei, maintains that part in a
state of equilibrium on the lower extre-
mity which rests on the ground, while the
other is carried forwards in progression.
The true office of these important mus-
cles does not therefore consist, as it is
usually represented, in the common ana-
tomical works, in moving the thigh on the
pelvis, but in that of fixing the pelvis on
the thighs, and of maintaining it in the
erect position.

Such then are the supports, by which
the trunk of the human body is firmly
maintainedin the erect position. The pro-
perties of the trunk, which contribute to
the same end, do not so immediately
belong to this article ; but may be slightly
mentioned, to complete the view of the
subject. The breadth of the human pelvis
affords a firm basis on which all the supe-
rior parts rest securely ; the same part is
so narrow, in other animals, that the trunk
represents an inverted pyramid, and there
must consequently be great difficulty in
maintaining it in a state of equilibrium,,if
it were possible for the animal to assume
the erect position. In those instances
where the pelvis is broader, the other con-
ditions of the upright stature are absent:
the bear, however, forms an exception to
this observation, and consequently admits
of being taught to stand and walk erect,
although the posture is manifestly incon-
venient and irksome to the animal.

The perpendicular position of the ver-
tebral column under the centre of the
basis cranii, and the direction of the eyes
and mouth forwards, would be as incon-
venient to man, if he went on all-fours, as
they are well adapted to his erect stature.
In the former case, he would not be able
to look before him ; and the great weight
of the head, with the comparative weak-
ness of the extensor muscles, and the
•want of ligamentum nuchae, would render
the elevation of that organ almost impos-
sible.

When quadrupeds endeavour to sup-
port themselves on the hind extremities ;
as, for instance, for the purpose of seiz-
ing any objects with the fore feet, they
rather sit down than assume the erect po-

sition. For they rest on the thighs as well
as on the feet, and this can only be done
where the tore part of the body is small,
as in the simia;, the squirrel, &c. : in other
cases, the animal is obliged also to sup-
port itself by the fore feet, as in the dog,
cat, &c. The large and strong tail in
some instances forms as it were a third
foot, and thereby increases the surface
for supporting me body, as in the kangu-
rooand the jerboa.

Various gradations may be observed in
the mammalia, connecting man to those
animals which are strictly quadrupds.
The simix, which are by no means
calculated for the erect position, are not,
on the other hand, destined, like the pro-
per quadrupeds, to go on all-fours. They
live in trees, where their front and hind
extremities are both employed in climb-
ing, &c.

The true quadrupeds have the front of
the trunk supported by the anterior ex-
tremities, which are consequently much
larger and stronger than in man ; as the
hind feet of the same animals yield in
these respects to those of the human sub-
ject. The chest is in a manner suspend-
ed between the scapulae, and the serrati
magni muscles, which support it in this
position, are consequently of great bulk
and strength. When viewed together,
they represent a kind of girth surround-
ing the chest.

The chief agents in flying are the
muscles, which move the anterior extre-
mities of the bird, and which constitute
what in common language is termed the
breast of the animal.

Birds possess three pectoral muscles,
arising chiefly from their enormous ster-
num, and acting on the head of the hu-
merus. The first, or great pectoral,
weighs of itself more than all the other
muscles of the bird together. The keel
of the sternum, the fork, and the last
ribs, give origin to it ; and it is inserted
in a rough projecting line of the hume-
rus. By depressing that bone, it produces
the strong and violentmotions of the wing,
which carry the body forwards in flying.
The middle pectoral lies under this, and
sends its tendon over the junction of the
fork, with the clavicle and scapula, as in
a pulley, to be inserted in the upper part
of the humerus, which bone it elevates.
By this contrivance of the pulley, the
elevator of the wing is placed at the un-
der surface of the body. The third, or
lesser pectoral muscle, has the same effect
with the great pectoral, in depressing th;.
wing.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

One of the flexor tendons of the toes of
birds, (produced from a muscle which
comes from the pubis) runs in front of the
knee ; and all these tendons go behind the
heel : hence the flexion of the knee and
heel produces mechanically a bent state
of the toes, which may be seen in the dead
bird ; and it is by means of this structure
that the bird is supported, when roosting1,
without any muscular action.

This circumstance of the flexion of the
toes accompanying1 that of the other joints
of the lower extremity of birds was long-
ago observed by Borelli, and attributed
by him to the connection which the flex-
ors of the toes have with the upper parts
of the limb, by which they are mechani-
cally stretched when the knee is bent.
This explanation has been controverted
by Vicq d'Azyr, and others, who have
referred the effect to the irritability of
the muscles. The opinion of Borelli ap-
pears, notwithstanding, to be well found-
ed ; for not only the tendon of the ac-
cessory flexor passing1 round the knee,
but the course of the flexor tendons over
the heel, and along- the metatarsus, must
necessarily cause the contraction of the
toes when either of these joints is bent ;
and if the phenomenon was not produced
on mechanic principles, it would be im-
possible for birds to exhibit it during
sleep, which they do, or to prove the ef-
fect on the limb of a dead bird, than
which nothing- is more easy. The utility
of this contrivance is great in all birds,
but particularly so in the rapacious tribe,
which, by this means, grasp their prey
in the very act of pouncing- on it ; and
it is still more necessary to those birds
which perch or roost during their sleep,
as they could not otherwise preserve their
position, when all their voluntary powers
are suspended.

URINARY ORGANS.

The structure of the kidney in the
mammalia displays two very opposite
varieties, which may be called the simple
and the conglomerated kidneys. In the
former there is a single papilla, which
is surrounded by an exterior crust of
cortical substance. This is the case in
all the ferae, and in many rodentia. The
other kind of kidney consists of an ag-
gregation of small kidneys, connected by
cellular substance. It appears that this
form of the gland is found in all those
mammalia which either live in or fre-
quent the water. I have observed it in
the seal and porpoise, where the small

VOL. III.

kidneys are extremely "numerous, and
send branches to the ureter without
forming- a pelvis. Mr. Hunter states
that it belongs to all the whales. (" Phi-
los. Transact. 1807, pt. 2.") The otter
has the same structure ; but its small kid-
neys are not so numerous as in the ani-
mals above-mentioned. (" Home, of the
sea-otter (lutra marina,) Philos. Trans.
1796, pt. 2.") It is remarkable that the
brown bear (ursus arctos,) which lives on
land, should have this structure as well
as the white polar bear (ursus >mariti-
mus,) which, inhabiting- the coasts and
floating- ice of the northern regions,
spends much of its time in the water,
Mr. Hunter concludes, that it is because
nature wishes to preserve an uniformity
in the structure of similar animals. But
the badger, (ursus meles,) which is a
very similar animal, has the uni-lobu-
lar kidney. The number of small
kidneys in the bear is 50 or 60, and
it appears that each consists of two pa-
pillae.

The kidneys of birds form a double
row of distinct, but connected glandular
bodies, placed on both sides of the lum-
bar vertebrae, in cavities of the ossa in-
nominata. The urinary bladder does not
exist in this whole class, and the ureters
open into cloaca.

Animals of the genus testudo and rana
have a large bladder in the situation of
the urinary receptacle of other animals.
This is double in many of the frogs, pro-
perly so called. These bags are repre-
sented both by Blumenbach and Cuvier
as urinary bladders ; but Townson has
already shown, that in the frog and toad
they have no connection with the ure-
ters, which open at the back of the
rectum, while those receptacles termi-
nate on the front of the intestine.
("Tracts and Observations," p. 66. fig.
3.) The writer of this article has ob-
served the same structure in a male and
female tortoise.

ORGANS OF GEKERATIOJf.

The nature of generation, which is the
greatest mystery in the economy of liv-
ing bodies, is still involved in impenetra
ble obscurity. The creation of a living
body, that is, its formation by the union
of particles suddenly brought together,
has not hitherto been proved by any di-
rect observation. The comparison of this
process to that of crystallization is found-
ed in a false analogy ; crystals are formed
of similar particles, attracting each other

T t

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

indifferently, and agglutinated by their
surfaces, which determine the order of
their arrangement : living bodies, on the
contrary, consist of numerous fibres or
laminae, of heterogenous composition, and
various figures, each of which has its pe-
culiar situation in relation to the other
fibres and laminae. Moreover, from the
instant in which a living body can be said
to exist, however small it may be, it
possesses all its parts ; it does not grow
by the addition of any new laminre, but
by the uniform or irregular devclopement
of parts which existed before any sensi-
ble growth.

The only circumstance common to all
generation, and, consequently, the only
essential part of the process, is, that
every living body is attached at first to
a larger body of the same species with
itself. It constitutes a part of this larger
body, and derives nourishment for a cer-
tain time from its juices. The subsequent
separation constitutes birth ; and may be
the simple result of the life of the larger
body, and of the consequent develope-
ment of the smaller, without the addition
of any occasional action.

Thus the essence of generation con-
sists in the appearance of a small organ-
ised body in or upon some part of a larger
one ; from which it is separated at a cer-
tain period, in order to assume an inde-
pendent existence.

All the processes and organs, which co-
operate in the business of generation in
certain classes, are only accessory to this
primary function.

When the function is thus reduced to
its most simple state, it constitutes the
g-emmiparous, or generation by shoots.
In this way the buds of trees are develop-
ed into branches, from which other trees
may be formed. The polypes (hydra)
and the sea-anemones (actinia) multiply
in this manner ; some worms are propa-
gated by a division of their body, and
must therefore be arranged in the same
division. This mode of generation re-
quires no distinction of sex, no copula-
tion, nor any particular organ.

Other modes of generation are accom-
plished inappropriate organs : the gvrms
appear in a definite situation in the body,
and the assistance of certain operations
is required for their further develope-
ment. These operations constitute fecun-
dation, and suppose the existence of
sexual parts : which may either be sepa-
rate, or united in the same individual.

The office of the male sex is that of
furnishing the fecundating or seminal
fluid; but the manner in which that

contributes to the devclopement of the
germ is not yet settled by physiologists.
Some, forming their opinions from the
human subject and the mammalia, where
the germs are imperceptible before fe-
cundation, suppose that these are creat-
ted by the mixture of the male fluid with
that which they suppose to exist in tht:
female ; or that they pre-exist in the mule
semen, and that the female only furnishes
them with an abode. Others consult the
analogy of the other classes of animals
and of plants. In several instances, par-
ticularly in the frog, the germ may be
clearly recognised in the ovum, before
fecundation : its pre-existence may be
concluded, in other cases, from the man-
ner in which it is connected to the ovum
when it first becomes visible ; for it is
agreed on* all sides, that the ovum exists
in the female before fecundation, since
virgin hens lay eggs, &c. From such
considerations these physiologists con-
clude, that the germ pre-exists in all fe-
males, and that the fecundating liquor
is a stimulus, which bestows on it an in-
dependent life, by awakening it, in a
manner, from the species of lethargy in
which it would otherwise have constantly-
remained.

The origin of the germs, and the mode
of their existence in the female, whether
they are formed anew by the action of
life, or are prc-existent, and inclosed
within each other; or whether they are
disseminated, and require a concourse of
circumstances to bring them into a situa-
tion favourable for their developement ;
are questions, which, in the present state
of our knowledge, it is utterly impossible
for us to decide. These points have fora
long time been agitated by physiologists;
but the discussion seems now to be aban-
doned by universal consent.

The combination of the sexes, and the
mode of fecundation, are subject to great
variety. In some instances they are
united in the same individual, and the
animal impregnates itself. The acepha-
lous mollusca and the echinus exemplify
this structure. In others, although the
sexes are united in each individual, an
act of copulation is required, in which
they both fecundate and are fecundated.
This is the case with the gasteropodous
mollusca, and several worms. In the re-
mainder of the animal kingdom the sexes
belong to different individuals.

The fecundating liquor is always ap-
plied upon or about the germs. In many
cases the ova are laid before they are
touched by the semen ; as in some fishes
of the bony division, and the cephalopo-

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

dous mollusca. Here, therefore, impreg-
nation is effected out of the body; as it is
also in the frog1 and toad. But in the lat-
ter instances the male embraces the fe-
male, and discharges his semen in pro-
portion as she voids the eggs. In most
animals the seminal liqour is introduced
into the body of the female, and the ova
are fecundated before they are discharg-
ed. This is the case in the mammalia,
birds, most reptiles, and some fishes ; in
the hermaphrodite gastcropodous mol-
lusca, in the Crustacea, and insects. The
act by which this is accomplished is
termed copulation.

In all the last mentioned orders ova
may be discharged without previous co-
pulation, as in the preceding ones. But
they receive no further developement ;
nor can they be fecundated when thus
voided.

The effect of a single copulation va-
ries in its degree ; it usually fecundates
one generation only ; but sometimes, as
in poultry, several eggs are fecundated ;
still, however, they only form one gene-
ration.

In a very few instances one act of co-
pulation fecundates several generations,
which can pcopagate their species with-
out the aid of the male. In the plant-
louse (aphis) this has been repeated
eight times; and in some monoculi twelve
or fifteen times.

When the germ is detached from the
ovary, its mode of existence may be more
or less complete. In most animals it is
connected, by means of vessels, to an or-
ganised mass, the absorption of which
nourishes and developes it until the
period of its birth. It derives nothing,
therefore, from the body of the mother,
from which it is separated by coverings
varying in number and solidity. The
germ, together with its mass of nourish-
ment, and the surrounding membranes,
constitutes an egg or ovum ; and the ani-
mals which produce their young in this
state are denominated oviparous.

In most of these the germ contained in
the egg is not developed until that part
has quitted the body of the mother, or
has been laid : whether it be necessary
that it should be afterwards fecundated,
as in many fishes, or required only the ap-
plication of artificial heat for its incuba-
tion, as in birds ; or that the natural heat
of the climate is sufficient, as in reptiles,
insects, &.c. These are strictly oviparous
animals.

The ovum, after being fecundated, and
detached from the ovarium, remains, in
some animals, witbin the body of the mo-

ther, until the contained germ be die.
veloped and hatched. These are false
viviparous animals, or ovo-viviparous.
The viper and some fishes afford instan-
ces of this process.

Mammalia alone are truly viviparous
animals. Their germ possesses no pro-
vision of nourishment, but grows by what
it derives from the juices of the mother.
For this purpose it is attached to the in-
ternal surface of the uterus, and some-
times by accident to other parts, by a
kind^ of root or infinite ramification of
vessels called a placenta. It is not,
therefore, completely separated from the
mother by its coverings. It does not
come into the world until it can enjoy an
independent organic existence. The
mammalia cannot, therefore, be said to
possess an ovum, in the sense which we
have assigned to that term.

From the above view of the subject,
generation may be said to consist of four
functions, differing in their importance,
and in the number of animals to which
they belong.

1st. The production of the germ, which
is a constant circumstance ; 2dly, fecun-
dation, which belongs to only the sexual
generations ; 3dly, copulation, which is
confined to those sexual generations, in
which fecundation is accomplished with-
in the body.

Lastly, uterogestation, which belongs
exclusively to viviparous generation.

The testes, and sometimes the vesicu-
Ix seminales and prostate, vary most re-
markably in their magnitude in such ani-
mals as have a regular rutting season.
They are very diminutive at other peri-
ods of the year, but swell at that par-
ticular time to a comparatively vast mag-
nitude. This change is particularly ob-
servable in the testes of the mole, spar-
row, and frog.

We may mention here, in a cursory
and general manner, the peculiar organs
possessed by the moles of some species,
for the purpose of holding the female
during the act of copulation. Of this
kind are, the spur on the hind feet of
the male ornithorhynchus ; the rough
black tubercle formed in the spring sea-
son on the thumb of the common frog ;
the two members, formed of bones arti-
culated to each other, near the genitals
of the male torpedo and other cartilagi-
nous fishes ; the forceps on the abdomen
of the male dragon-fly, &c.

A scrotum belongs to the mammalia on-
ly ; and is not found in all these. The
aquatic genera, those which live under
ground, and others, want it.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

The testes remain constantly in the ab-
domen in the ornithorhynchus, the ele-
phant, the amphibious mammalia, and
the cetacea. Some animals have the
power of- protruding them from the ab-
domen, and retracing1 them again into
the cavity ; as the bats, mole, hedge-
hog, and shrew, besides several of the
rodentia. They are thrust out of the ca-
vity, particularly at the rutting season.

The tunica vaginalis exists constantly
in the mammalia. As the horizontal po-
sition of the body obviates the danger of
hernias, the cavity of this membrane
communicates by means of a narrow ca-
nal with the abdomen, in such animals as
have the testes remaining constantly in
the scrotum.

In some species, where the act of copu-
lation requires a longer portion of time,
as in the dog, badger, &c. the corpus
spongiosum of the glans, and of the pos-
terior part of the penis, swells during
the act much more considerably than the
rest of the organ, and thus the male and
female are held together during a suffi-
cient space of time for the discharge of
the seminal fluid.

Several species of mammalia, both
among those which possess no vesiculae
seminales, and thereby require a longer
time for completing the act of copulation,
and such as are not distinguished by
this peculiarity, possess a peculiar bone
in the penis, generally of a cylindrical
form, but sometimes grooved. This is
the case with some of the simise, most of
the bat-kind, the hamster, and several
others of the mouse-kind, the dog, bear,
badger, weasel, seal, walrus, &.c.

In most of the mammalia the urethra
runs on the end of the glands, and forms
a common passage for the urine, pros-
tatic liquor, and semen. In some few
species, the passage which conducts the
two former fluids is distinct from that of
the seminal liquor. The bifid fork-like
glans, of the opossum has three openings,
one at the point of bifurcation for trans-
mitting the urine ; and two for the semi-
nal fluid at the two extremities of the
glans. The short urethra of the ornitho-
rynchus paradoxus opens directly into
the cloaca, and the large penis of the ani-
mal serves merely to conduct the semi-
nal fluid. It divides into two parts at its
extremity, and each of these is furnished
with sharp papillae, which are perforated
for the passage of the semen. A similar
structure obtains in the ornithorhynchus
hystrix, where the penis divides into four
g-lnuds.

In some species of the cat-kind the
glans is covered with retroverted papillae,
which, as these animals have no vesiculae
seminales, may enable the male to hold
the female longer in his embraces.

Lastly, it deserves to be mentioned,
that in some mammalia, the male penis,
while unerected, is turned backwards ;
so that the urine is voided in the male in
the same direction as in the female. The
hare, lion, and camel, afford instances of
this structure. But the statement which
has been so often repeated since the time
of Aristotle, that these retromingentia co-
pulate backwards, is erroneous.

BIRDS.

The testes, which lie near the kidneys,
and the ductus deferentes, are the only
male organs which are constantly found
in the whole class.

In a very few instances, as in the cock,
the last mentioned canals terminate in a
dilated part, which has been considered
analogous to the vesiculae seminales. In
stead of a penis, most birds have in the
cloaca two small papillae, on which the
seminal ducts terminate. This is the case
in the cock, turkey and pigeon.

Some few species have a simple penis
of considerable length, which is ordina-
rily concealed and retracted within the
cloaca ; but remains visible externally for
some time after copulation. It forms a
long worm-shaped tube in the drake, and
constitutes a groove in the ostrich, which
is visible when the animal discharges its
urine.

AMPHIBIA.

The kidney, testes, and epididymis,
lie close together in the testudines ; but
each of the three organs may be distin-
guished by its peculiar colour and struc-
ture on the first view. They appear to
have no vesiculae seminales : none at least
could be discovered in a testudo graeca,
which was lately dissected. The penis
on the contrary is very large ; and re-
tracted within the cloaca in its ordinary
state. Instead of an urethra, this part
contains a groove, whose margins ap-
proach to each other, when the part is
erected, so as to form a closed canal.
The glans terminates in an obtuse hook-
like point, somewhat resembling the end
of the elephant's trurtk.

Serpents have long slender testicles ;
jio vesieuloe seminales ; but. a double pe-

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

nis, each of which has a bifid point cover-
ed with sharp papillae.

FISHES.

The male organs of generation possess
very different structures in the different
orders of this class. We shall take two
species as examples ; the torpedo for the
cartilaginous, and the carp for the bony
fishes.

In the former instance there are mani-
fest testicles, consisting partly of innu-
merable glandular and granular bodies,
and partly of a substance like the soft roe
of bony fishes. We find also vasa defer-
cntia, and a vesicula seminalis, which
opens into the rectum by means of a
small papilla.

The soft roe supplies the place of testes
in the carp, and most other bony fishes.
It forms two elongated flat viscera, of a
white colour, and irregular tuberculated
surface, placed at the sides of the intes-
tines and swimming bladder, so that the
left encloses the rectum in a kind of
groove. Through the middle of each soft
roe passes aductus deferens, which opens
behind into a kind of vesicula seminalis,
and this terminates in the cloaca.

FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION.

An ovarium is the most essential and
universal of all the female parts of gene-
ration. In addition to this, those ani-
mals which breathe by means of lungs, as
well as some fishes, and several white-
blooded animals, have, also oviducts,
(Fallopian tubes, &c.) or canals leading
from the ovarium to the uterus : and last-
ly, those, at least, which are impregnated
by a real copulation, possess a vagina, or
canal connecting the uterus to the ex-
ternal organs of generation.

In birds all the parts which we have
just mentioned are single. Some cartila-
ginous fishes have two oviducts ; begin-
ning, however, by a common opening,
and terminating in a simple uterus. The
human female, as well as that of many
other mammalia, has two ovaria, with an
oviduct belonging to each; a simple ute-
rus and vagina. The females of this class,
in several other instances, possess an
uterus bicornis : and in some cases the
generative organs are double throughout;
that is, there are two uteri, and, at least
for some extent, a double vagina.

Ovaria are found in the females of all
animals where the male possesses testi-
cles ; but their structure is in general
more simple than that of the latter glands,

particularly in the first tlass. These bo-
dies were formerly called the female tes-
ticles ; but the term ovary is much pre-
ferable, as it denotes the function which
the parts perform in the animal econo-
my. For, if the office of these bodies be
at all dubious, when their structure is
considered in man and most of the mam-
malia, their organization is so evident in
the other classes, that no doubt can be
entertained respecting their physiology.
It is manifest in all these, that the ovaria
serve for the growth and preservation of
the germs or ova, which exist in these
bodies, completely formed, before the
act of copulation. Analogy leads us to
conclude that these bodies have the same
office in the mammalia ; and thus our ex-
planation and illustration of this most in-
teresting part of physiology are entirely
derived from researches in comparative
anatomy.

Of all the external female sexual or-
gans in the mammalia, the clitoris is
found the most universally and invariably.
It exists even in the whale, and probably
is wanting in no other instance than
the ornithorhynchus. As its general
structure much resembles that of the
male penis, it contains a small bone in
several species, as the marmota citillus,
the racoon, lioness, and sea-otter.

A true hymen, or one, at least, which in
form and situation resembles that of the
human subject, has been observed in no
other animal.

The structure and form of the uterus
vary very considerably in the mammalia.
In no instance does it possess that thick-
ness, nor has its parenchyma that density
nor toughness, which are observed in the
human female. Of those which I have dis-
sected, the simia sylvanus had compara-
tively the firmest uterus. The two-toed
ant-eater came the next in order in this
respect. But in the greater number of
mammalia, this organ is thin in its coats,
resembling an intestine in appearance,
and provided with a true muscular cover-
ing.

The variations in the form of the unim-
pregnated uterus may be reduced to the
following heads :

1. The simple uterus without horns,
(uterus simplex,) which is generally of a
pyramidal or oval figure. This is exem-
plified in those animals, where we have
stated that it possesses thick coats. Its
circumference in some simiae presents a.
more triangular form than in the wo-
man : and towards the upper part, in the
neighbourhood of the Fallopian tubes,

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

there is an obscure division into two
blind sacs, (as in the gibbon, or long-
armed ape :) this distinction is more
strongly expressed in the lori, (lemur
tardigradus,) so as to form a manifest ap-
proach to the uterus bicornis.

2. A simple uterus with straight or
convoluted horns (uterus bicornis.)
They are straight in the bitch, in the bats
of this country, in the sea-otter, seal,
&c. ; somewhat convoluted in the ceta-
cea, mare, and hedge -hog, and still more
tortuous in the bisulca.

3. A double uterus, having the appear-
ance of two horns, which open separately
into the vagina ; this is seen in the hare
and rabbit, (uterus duplex.)

4. A double uterus, with extraordinary
lateral convolutions, is met with in the
opossum and kanguroo, (uterus anfrac-
tuosus.

These various forms undergo different
changes in the pregnant state.

The alteration in the simple uterus is,
on the whole, analogous to that which
occurs in the human female.

The pregnant uterus bicornis suffers a
different change in those animals which
bear only one at a time, from that which
it undergoes in the multipara. The foetus
of the mare is confined in its situation to
the proper uterus. In the cow it extends
at the same time into one of the horns,
which is enlarged for its reception. In
those, on the contrary, which bring forth
many young at once, as also in the
double uterus of the hare and rabbit,
both cornua are divided by contracted
portions into a number of pouches cor-
responding to that of the young ; and
where those horns are straight in the un-
impregnated state, as in the bitch, they
become convoluted.

The uterus of the opossum and kangu-
roo suffers the least change from its usual
appearance in the impregnated state.
For these strange animals bring their
young into the world so disproportion-
ately small, that they appear like early
abortions.

The passage of the foetus, in the opos-
sum tribe and the kanguroo, from the
cavity of the uterus into the false belly,
where it adheres by its mouth to the nip-
ple, presents one of the most singular and
interesting phenomena in the whole cir-
cle of comparative anatomy. Physiolo-
gists have not yet ascertained, whether
the embryo possesses, at any period, a
connection with the uterus similar to
that which is observed in the other mam-
malia : but it appears very probable, that
tfce processes, which follow the passage

of the ovum from the ovarium,are entire-
ly different in these animals, from those
which take place in the other mammalia.
Neither has the precise period, at which
the foetus enters the false belly, been
hitherto shewn,

The following statement of the sub-
ject, as far as it is at present known, is
derived from Mr. Home's paper. (Phil.
Trans. 1795.)

The uterus and lateral canals, in their
pregnant state, are distended with a very
adhesive jelly of a bluish white colour ;
which also fills the oval enlargements of
the Fallopian tubes.

" In the cavity of the uterus," says Mr.
Home, " I detected a substance which
appeared organized ; it was enveloped in
the gelatinous matter, and so small as to
make it difficult to form a judgment re-
specting it; but when compared with the
foetus after it becomes attached to the
nipple, it so exactly resembled the back-
bone with the posterior part of the skull,
that it is readily recognized to be the
same parts in an earlier stage of their for-
mation."

This substance has been represented
in a plate ; but the engraving does not,
in our opinion, possess the slightest
similitude to the parts mentioned by Mr.
Home.

The size of the foetus at the time it
leaves the uterus is not yet ascertained.
The smallest, which has been hitherto
found in the false belly, weighed twenty-
one grains, and was less than an inch in
length. In another instance it was " thir-
ty-one grains in weight from a mother of
fifty-six pounds. In this instance the
nipple was so short a way in the mouth^
that it readily dropped out ; we must
therefore conclude that it had been very
recently attached to it.

" The foetus at this period had no navel
string, nor any remains of there ever
having been one ; it could not be said to
be perfectly formed, but those parts
which fit it to lay hold of the nipple
were more so than the rest of the body.
The mouth was a round hole, just
enough to receive the point of the nip-
ple ; the two fore-paws, when compared
to the rest of the body, were large and
strong, the little claws extremely distinct;
while the hind-legs, which are afterwards
to be so very large, were both shorter and
smaller than the fore or.es."

" The mode in which the young kan-
guroo passes from the uterus into the
false belly has been matter of much spe-
culation ; and it has even been supposed
was an internal communica-

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

tion between these cavities ; but after the
most diligent search, I think I may ven-
ture to assert that there is no such pas-
sage. This idea took its rise from there
being- no visible opening1 between the
uterus and vagina in the unimpregnated
state ; but such an opening being very ap-
parent, both during pregnancy and after
parturition, overturns this hypothesis ; for
we cannot suppose that the foetus, when
it has reached the vagina, can pass out in
any other way than through the external
part." This passage will be facilitated
h>y the power which the animal possesses,
of drawing down the false belly to the
vulva, which has naturally a considerable
projection.

The female organs of generation of
birds consist of an ovarium, and an ovi-
duct, which opens into the cloaca. Its
aperture is placed towards the left of
that organ. The tube itself is convolut-
ed, somewhat like an intestine. Its inner
coat is furnished with numerous papillae.
Its diameter is the most considerable at
the cloaca, from which it gradually dimi-
nishes. It opens towards the abdomen
by an expanded orifice, called the in-
fundibulum ; which is analogous to
the fimbriated orifice of the Fallopian
lube.

The ovarium, resembling in its appear-
ance a bunch of grapes, lies under the
liver, and contains in a young laying hen
about five hundred yolks, varying in size
from a pin's head to their perfect mag-
nitude : the largest always occupy the
external circumference of the part. Each
yolk is inclosed in a membrane (calyx)
which is joined to the ovarium by means
of a short stalk or pedicle (petiolus) A
white shining line forms on the calyx
when the yolk has attained its complete
magnitude. The membrane bursting in
tliis part, the contained yolk escapes, and
is taken up by the infundibulum in a man-
ner which we cannot easily conceive. It
then passes along the oviduct, and ac-
quires in its passage the white and shell.
The calyx, on the contrary, remains con-
nected to the ovarium ; but it contracts
and diminishes in size, so that in old
hens, which have done laying, the whole
internal organs of generation nearly dis-
appear.

AMPHIBIA.

The tortoise has a manifest clitoris
lying in the cloaca. The oviduct and
ovarium have on the whole much analogy
with those of birds ; but all these parts

are double, and have two openings into
the cloaca.

The frogs of this country have a large
uterus, divided by an internal partition
into two cavities, from which two long
convoluted oviducts arise, and terminate
by open orifices at the sides of the heart.
The ovaria lie under the liver, so that it
is difficult to conceive how the ova get
into the above mentioned openings. The
uterus opens into the cloaca.

The toads have not the larg-e uterus ;
but their oviducts terminate by a com-
mon tube in the cloaca.

The lizards of this country have on the
whole a similar structure to that of the
last mentioned animals. Their oviducts
are larger, but shorter, and the ovaria
contain fewer ova.

Female serpents have double external
openings of the genitals for the recep-
tion of the double organs of the male.
The oviducts are long and much convo-
luted. The ovaria resemble rows of beads
composed of yellow vesicles.

FISHES.

We shall take the torpedo and the
carp as examples of the two chief divi-
sions of the class, as we did in speaking-
of the male organs.

In the former fish there are two uteri,
communicating with the cloaca by means
of a common vagina. The oviducts form
one infundibulum, which receives the ova
as they sucessively arrive at maturity.
These are very large in comparison with
those of the bony fishes. The yolk, in
its passage through the oviduct, acquires
its albumen and shell. The latter is of
a horny consistence, and is known by
the name of the sea-mouse. It has an
elongated quadrangular figure, and its
four corners are curved and pointed in
the skate, while they form horny plaited
eminences in the sharks. The secretion
of the albumen, and the formation of the
shell, are performed by the papillous in-
ternal surface of the duct ; and chiefly
by two glandular swellings which appear
towards its anterior extremity in the
summer months, while the eggs are be-
ing laid.

The structure is much more simple in
the carp, and probably also in the other
oviparous bony fishes. The two roes oc-
cupy the same position as the soft roe of
the male does. They are placed at the
side of the intestines, liver, and swimming
bladder, as far as the anus. They consist
of a delicate membrane inclosing the ova,
which are all of one size, and extremely

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

numerous (more than 200,000 in the carp ) ;
and terminate by a common opening be-
hind the anus.

The immense number of ova contained
in the ovaria of fishes accounts to us sa-
tisfactorily for the astonishing1 multitudes
in which some species are formed. In a
perch weighing- one pound two ounces,
there were 69,216 ova in the ovarium ; in
a mackarel of one'pound three ounces,
129,200 ; in a carp of eighteen inches, Pe-
tit found 342,144 ; and in a sturgeon of
one hundred and sixty pounds, there was
the enormous number of 1,467,500.

EMBRYO OF THE MAMMALIA.

The mode of connexion of the pregnant
uterus with the membranes of the ovum,
and thereby with the embryo itself, dis-
play three chief differences in the vari-
ous mammalia.

Either the whole external surface of the
ovum adheres to the cavity of the uterus,
or the connection is effected by means of
a simple placenta, or by more numerous
small placentae (cotyledons.)

The first kind of structure is observed
in the sow, and is still more manifest in
the mare. In the latter case, the external
membrane of the ovum, the chorion, may
be said to form a bag-like placenta. Nu-
merous and large branches of the umbilical
vessels ramify through it, particularly in
the latter half of the period of pregnancy;
and its external surface is covered with
innumerable flocculent papillae, which
connect it to the inside of the uterus.

In those animals of this class, where the
embryo is nourished by means of a pla-
centa, remarkable varieties occur in the
several species ; sometimes in the form
and successive changes of the parts ; some-
times in the structure of the organ, as be-
ing more simple or complicated.

In most of the digitated mammalia, as
well as in the quadrumana, the placenta
has a roundish form ; yet it consists some-
times of two halves lying near together ;
and in the dog, cat, martin, &c. it resem-
bles a belt (cingulum or zona.) Its form
in the pole-cat holds the middle between
these two structures, as there are two
round masses joined by an intervening
narrower portion

The placenta of the bisulca is divided
into numerous cotyledons, the structure of
which is very interesting, as it elucidates
the whole physiology of this organ. The
parts designated by this appellation are
certain fleshy excrescences (glandulae
uterinx) produced from the surface of the

impregnated uterus, and having a corres-
ponding number of flocculent fasciculi of
blood-vessels (carunculae) which grow
from the external surface of the chorion
implanted in them. Thus the uterine and
fetal portions of the placenta are manifest-
ly distinct from each other, and are easily
separable as;the fcctus advances to matu-
rity. The latter only are discharged with
the after-birth, while the former, or the
cotyledons, gradually disappear from the
surface of the uterus after it has parted
with its contents. The number and form
of these excrescences vary in the different
genera and species. In the sheep and cow
they sometimes amount to a hundred. In
the former animal and the goat they are,
as the name implies, concave eminences ;
while, on the contrary, in the cow, deer,
&c. their surface is rounded or convex.

The trunks of the veins which pass from
the placenta or carunculse, and of the ar-
teries which proceed towards these parts,
are united in the umbilical chord, which is
longer in the human embryo than in any
other animal.

In the foal, as in the child, the chord
possesses a single umbilical vein ; whilst
most other quadrupeds have two, which
unite, however, into a common trunk near
the body of the foetus, or just within it.

The amnion, or innermost of the two
membranes of the ovum, \vhich belongs to
the pregnant woman, as well as to the
mammalia, is distinguished in some of the
latter, as for instance in the cow, by its
numerous blood-vessels; while, on the con-
trary, in the human subject it possesses
no discernible vascular ramification.

Between the chorion and amnion there
is a part found in most pregnant quadru-
peds, and even in the cetacea, which does
not belong to the human ovum, viz. the
allantois, or urinary membrane. The lat-
ter name is derived from the connection
which this part has, by means of the ura-
chus, with the urinary bladder of the
foetus : whence the watery fluid which it
contains has been regarded as the urine
of the animal. The term allantois
has arisen from the sausage-like form
which the part possesses in the bisulca
and the pig ; although this shape is not
found in several other genera and spe-
cies ; thus, in the hare, rabbit, guinea-pig,
&c. it resembles a small flask ; and it is
oval in the pole-cat. It covers the whole
internal surface of the chdrion in the
solidungula, and therefore incloses the
foal with its amnion. It contains, most
frequently in these animals (although
not rarely in the cow,) larger or smaller

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

"masses of an apparently coagulated sedi-
ment in various forms and number, which
has been long1 known by the singular
name of the horse-venom, or hippomanes.
Some orders and genera of mammalia
resemble the human subject in having no
allantois, as the quadrumana and the
hedge-hog ; nay, in the latter animal, the
urinary bladder has no trace whatever of
urachus.

0:y THE IXCTIBATED EGG.

The various vital processes of nutrition
and formation, which are carried on in the
foetus of the mammalia while in its mo-
ther's body, and by means of the most
intimate connection with the parent, are
effected in the incubated chick by its
own powers, quite independently of the
mother, and without any extraneous as-
sistance, except that of the atmospheric
air and a certain degree of warmth.

The egg is covered within the shell,
by a white and firm membrane (mem-
branaalbuminis) which contains no blood-
vessels. The twolayersofthismembrane,
which in other parts adhere closely to
each other, leave at the large end a
space which is filled with atmospheric
air.

This membrane includes the two
whites of the egg, each of which is sur-
rounded by a delicate membrane. The
external of these is the most fluid and
transparent ; the inner one thicker and
more opaque ; they may be separated in
eggs which are boiled hard.

The internal white surrounds the yolk,
which is contained in a peculiar mem-
brane called the yolk-bag. From each
end of this proceeds a white knotty body,
which terminates in a flocculent extre-
mity in the albumen. These are called
the chalazx, or grandines.

A small round milk-white spot, called
the tread of the cock (cicatricula, or ma-
cula), is formed on the surface of the
yolk-bag. It is surrounded by one or
more whitish concentric circles (halones,
or circuli), the use of which, as well as
that of the cicatricula itself, and of the
chalaz<e, is not yet ascertained.

We now proceed to notice the wonder-
ful successive changes which go on during
the incubation of the egg, and the meta-
morphoses which are observed, both in the
general form of the chick and in particu-
lar viscera. The periods of these changes
will be set down from the hen, as afford-
ing the most familiar example. It will be
best to give, first, a cursory chronological

VOL. Ill,

view of the whole process, and then to
make a few remarks on some of the most
important parts of the subject.

A small shining spot, of an elongated
form, with rounded extremities, but nar-
rowest in the middle, is perceived at the
end of the first day, not in nor upon the
cicatricula, but very near that part on the
yolk-bag (nidus pulli ; colliquamentum ;
areola pellucida.) This may be said to
appear before-hand, as the abode of the
chick which is to follow.

No trace of the latter can be discerned
before the beginning of the second day;
and then it has an i n curv ate d form, resem-
bling a gelatinous filament with large ex-
tremities, very closely surrounded by the
amnion, which at first can scarcely be dis-
tinguished from it.

About this time the halones enlarge
their circles, but they soon after disappear
entirely, as well as the cicatricula.

The first appearance of red blood is
discerned on the surface of the yolk-bag
towards the end of the second day. A
series of points is observed which form
grooves ; and these, closing, constitute
vessels, the trunks of which become con-
nected to the chick. The vascular sur-
face itself is called figura venosa, or area
vasculosa ; and the vessel, by which its
margin is defined, vena terminalis. The
trunk of all the veins joins the vena por-
tae ; while the arteries, which ramify on
the yolk-bag, arise from the mesenteric
artery of the chick.

On the commencement of the third day,
the newly -formed heart(the primary organ
of the circulating process which now com-
mences) is discerned by means of its triple
pulsation,andconstitutesa threefold punc-
tum saliens. Some parts of the incubated
chicken are destined to undergo succes-
sive alterations in their form ; and this
holds good of the heart in particular. In
its first formation it resembles a tortuous
canal, and consists of three dilatations ly-
ing close together, and arranged in a tri-
angle. One of these, which is properly
the right, is then the common auricle ;
the other is the only ventricle, but after-
wards the left ; and the third is the dilat-
ed part of the aorta (bulbus aortae.)

About the same time, the spine, which
was originally extended in a straight line,
becomes incujvated; and the distinction of
the vertebrae is very plain. The eyes may
be distinguished by their black pigment,
and comparatirely immense size ; and they
are afterwards remarkable, in conse-
quence of a peculiar slit in the lower
part of the iris.

TT n

COM

From the fourth day, when the chicken
has attained the length of four lines, and
its most important abdominal viscera, as
the stomach, intestines, and liver, are visi-
ble, (the gall bladder, however, does not
appear till the sixth day,) a vascular mem-
brane (chorion, or memhranaumbilicalis)
begins to form about the navel, and in-
creases in the following days with such ra-
pidity, that it covers nearly the whole in-
ner surface of the shell within the mem-
brana albuminis, during the latter half of
incubation. This seems to supply the
place of the lungs, and to carry on the
respiratory process instead of those or-
gans. The lungs themselves begin in-
deed to be formed on the fifth day ; but,
as in the foetus of the mammalia, they
must be quite incapable of performing
their functions while the chick is contain-
ed in the amnion.

Voluntary motion is first observed on
the sixth day; when the chick is about
seven lines in length.

Ossification commences on the ninth
day, when the ossific juice is first secret-
ed, and hardened into bony points (punc-
ta ossificationis.)

These form the rudiments of the bony
ring of the sclerotica, which resembles at
that time a circular row of the most deli-
cate pearls.

At the same period, the marks of the
elegant yellow vessels (vasa vitelli lutea)
on the yolk-bag, begin to be visible.

On the fourteenth day, the feathers
appear ; and the animal is now able to
open its mouth for air, if taken out of the

egg-

On the nineteenth day it is able to utter
sounds ; and on the twenty -first to break
through its prison, and commence a se-
cond life.

We shall conclude with one or two re-
marks on those very singular membranes,
the yolk-bag and chorion, which are so
essential to the life and preservation of
the animal.

The chorion, that most simple yet most
perfect temporary substitute for the lungs,
if examined in the latter half of incubation
in an egg very cautiously opened, pre-
sents, without any artificial injection, one
of the most splendid spectacles that oc-
curs in the whole organic creation. It ex-
hibits a surface covered with numberless
ramifications of arterial and venous ves-
sels. The latter are of the bright scarlet
colour, as they are carrying oxygenated
blood to the chick ; the arteries, on the
contrary, are of the deep or livid red, and

bring the carbonated blood from the
body of the animal. Their trunks are
connected with the iliac vessels ; and, on
account of the thinness of their coats,
they afford the best microscopical object
for demonstrating the circulation in a
warm-blooded animal.

The other membrane, the membrana
vitelli, is also connected to the body of
the chick, but by a twofold union, and
in a very different manner from the
former. It is joined to the small intes-
tine, by means of the ductusvitello-intes-
tinalis (pedunculus^ apophysis;) and also
by the blood vessels, which have been
already mentioned, with the mesenteric
artery and vena portae.

In the course of the incubation the yolk
becomes constantly thinner and paler, by
the admixture of the inner white. At the
same time innumerable fringe-like vessels,
with flocculent extremities of a most sin-
gular and unexampled structure, form on
the inner surface of the yolk-bag, oppo-
site to the yellow ramified marks above
mentioned, and hang into the yolk. There
can be no doubt that they have the office
of absorbing the yolk, and conveying it
into the veins of the yolk-bag, where it is
assimilated to the blood, and applied to
the nutrition of the chick. Thus, in the
chicken which has just quitted the egg,
there is only a remainder of the yolk and
its bag to be discovered in the abdomen.
These are completely removed in the fol-
lowing weeks, so that the only remaining1
trace is a kind of cicatrix on the surface
of the intestine.

COMPARATIVE degree, among gram-
marians, that between the positive and
superlative degrees, expressing any par-
ticular quality above or beneath the level
of another.

COMPARISON of ideas, among logi-
cians, that operation of the mind, whereby
it compares its ideas one with another, in
regard of extent, degree, time, place, or
any other circumstance, and is the ground
of relations. This is a faculty which the
brutes seem not to have in any great de-
gree.

COMPARISON, in rhetoric, a figure that
illustrates and sets off one thing, by re-
sembling and comparing it with another,
to which it bears a manifest relation and
resemblance, as the following figure in
Shakspeare :

" She never told her love,
But let concealment, like a worm i*
the bud,

COM

Feed on her damask cheek: she pined
in thought,

And sat like Patience on a monu-
ment,

Smiling at Grief."

COMPARTMENT, or COMPART-
MENT, in general, is a design composed of
several different figures, disposed with
symmetry, to adorn a parterre, a ceiling,
&c. A compartment of tiles, or bricks,
is an arrangement of them, of different
colours, and varnished, for the decoration
of a building. Compartments, in gai'den-
ing-, are an assemblage of beds, plats,
borders, walks, &c. disposed in the most
advantageous manner that the ground
will admk of. Compartments in heraldry
are otherwise called partitions.

COMPASS, or mariner's compass, an in-
strument whereby the ship's course is de-
termined. See MAGNETISM.

COMPASS is also an instrument in sur-
veying of land, dialling, &c. whose struc-
ture is chiefly the same with that of the
mariner's compass; and,like that, consists
of a box and needle ; the principal differ-
ence being this, that instead of the nee-
dle's being fitted into the card, and play-
ing with it on a pivot, it here plays alone.
See SURVEYING.

COMPASS dials are small horizontal di-
als fitted in brass or silver boxes for the
pocket, to show the hour of the day, by
the direction of a needle, that indicates
how to place them right, by turning the
dial about till the cock or style stand di-
rectly over the needle, and point to the
northward ; but these can never be very
exact, because of the variations of the
needle itself.

COMPASSES, or pair of compasses, a ma-
thematical instrument for describing cir-
cles, measuring figures, &c. They consist
of two sharp pointed branches or legs of
iron, steel, brass, or other metal, joined
at top by a rivet, whereon they move as
on a centre.

COMPASSES of three legs are, setting
aside the excess of a leg, of the same
structure with the common ones : their
use being to take three points at once,
and so to form triangles ; to lay down
three positions of a map to be copied at
once, &c.

COMPASSES, beam, consist of a long
branch or beam, carrying two brass cur-
sors, the one fixed at one end, the other
sliding along the beam, with a screw to
fasten it on occasion. To the cursors
may be screwed points of any kind,
whether steel for pencils, or the like. It

is used to draw large circles, to take great
extents, &c. See INSTRUMENTS, mathema-
tical.

COMPASSES, caliber. See the article CA-
LIBER.

CoMPASSKs,cZocfc7wafcers',are joined, like
the common compasses, with a quadrant
or bow, like the spring compasses; only
of different use, serving here to keep the
instrument firm at any opening. They
are made very strong, with the points of
their legs of well-tempered steel, as be-
ing used to draw lines on pasteboard or
copper.

COMPASSES, elliptic, consist of a cross
with grooves in it, and an index which is
fastened to the cross by means of dove-
tails that slide in the grooves ; so that
when the index is turned about, the end
will describe an ellipsis, which is the use
of these compasses.

COMPENSATION, in horology, is a
contrivance in the pendulum of a clock,
by means of which, while the expansion
from increase of temperature depresses
the centre of gravity of some of the vi-
brating parts, other parts are made to
ascend nearer the centre of suspension,
or else to draw up the pendulum, so as
to preserve the centre of oscillation of
the compound pendulum at an invariable
distance; and in consequence to keep
all the vibrations to the same time.

Compensation pendulums have the
part which expands upwards made either
of brass or zinc, or some very expansible
metal, while the descending parts are
usually iron or steel, and some of these
have leaves or machinery in their con-
struction : in others the compensation-
part does not vibrate, but serves to alter
the length of a simple pendulum; and
in others a fluid is used, most commonly
mercury. See HOROLOGY and PENDU-
LUM.

COMPENSATION balance. See HO-
ROLOGY.

COMPLEMENT, in astronomy, the
distance of a star from the zenith : or
the arch comprehended between the
place of the star above the horizon and
the zenith.

COMPLEMENT, in geometry, is what re-
mains of a quadrant of a circle, or of 90°
after any certain arch has been taken
away from it. Thus, if the arch taken
away be 40°, its complement is 50 : be-
cause 50 -f 40 = 90. The sine of the
complement of an arch is called the co-
sine, and that of the tangent, the cotan-
gent, &c.

COM

COMPLEMENT of the course, in naviga-
tion, is the number of points the course
wants of 90°, or eight points, viz. of a
quarter of the compass.

COMPLEMENT of life, in the doctrine of
annuities, denotes the difference, accord-
ing to M. De Moivre's hypothesis, be-
tween the age of any given life and 86
years. Thus the complement of a life of
45 years is 41 : of 30 it is 56. According
to this hypothesis, the probabilities of
life, through every period of existence,
are supposed to decrease in an arithmeti-
cal progression, so that out of 86 persons
just born, one is supposed to die every
year, till at the end of 86 years, which is
considered as the utmost limit of human
life, the last survivor becomes extinct.
On this supposition, the number of years
that a person has an equal chance of sur-
viving, is made to be the same with the
expectation which M. De Moivre finds
to be equal to half the complement of
life ; so that if the age be 4, the expecta-
tion will be -^ =41; if the age be 82,

4
the expectation will be— = 2; while the

chance that a child aged 4 survives 41

41
years is — and the chance that a person

aged 82 survives 2 years is 1. Since each
of these fractions is = £, it follows that
the one has an equal chance of living 41,
and the other of living 2 years. But by
tables founded on observation, the ex-
pectation of these lives are 402 and 3£,
while the chance of the younger living
40| years is 464, and the chance of the
elder living 3£ is 53 : that is, in the first
instance the chance is less, and in the
second greater than an even one, that a
person lives such a number of years as
shall be equal to his expectation, which
proves the incorrectness of M. De
Moivre's hypothesis.

COMPLEMENTS, in a parallelogram, are
the two smaller parallelograms made by
drawing two right lines through a point
in the diagonal, and parallel to the side
of a parallelogram. In every parallelo-
gram these compliments are equal.

COMPLEX, terms, or ideas, in logic, are
such as are compounded of several sim-
ple ones.

Complex ideas are often considered as
single and distinct beings, though they
may be made up of several simple ideas,
as a body, a spirit, a horse, a flower ; but
when several of these ideas of a different
kind are joined together, which are wont

to be considered as distinct, single be-
ings, they are called a compounded idea,
whether these united ideas be simple or
complex. Complex ideas, however com-
pounded and recompounded, though
their number be infinite, and their va-
riety endless, may be all reduced under
these three heads, modes, substances, and
relations.

COMPLEX proposition, is either that
which has at least one of its terms com-
plex, or such as contains several mem-
bers, as causal propositions ; or it is seve-
ral ideas offering themselves to our
thoughts at once, whereby we are led to
affirm the same thing of different objects,
or different things of the same object.
Thus, " God is infinitely wise, and infi-
nitely powerful." In like manner, hi the
proposition, " Neither kings nor people
are exempt from death.

COMPLEXION, a term technically
denoting the temperament, habitude,
and natural disposition of the body ; but
popularly signifying the colour of the
face and skin. Few subjects have en-
gaged the attention of naturalists more
than the diversities among the human
species, among which that of colour is the
most remarkable. The great differences
in this respect have given occasion to
several authors to assert, that the whole
human race have not sprung from one
original : but that as many different spe-
cies of men were at first created, as there
are now different colours to be found
among them. It remains, in reality, a
matter of no small difficulty, to account
for the remarkable variations of colour
that are to be found among different na-
tions. Dr Hunter, who considered the
matter more accurately than has common-
ly been done, determines absolutely
against any specific difference among
mankind. He introduces his subject by
observing, that when the question has
been agitated, whether all the human
race constituted only one species or not,
much confusion has arisen from the sense
in which the term species has been
adopted. He therefore thinks it neces-
sary to set out with a definition of the
term. He includes under the same spe-
cies all those animals which produce issue
capable of propagating others resem-
bling the original stock from whence
they sprung. This definition he illus-
trates by having recourse to the human
species as an example. And in this sense
of the term he concludes,that all of them
are to be considered as belonging to the
same species. And as, in the case of
plants, one species comprehends several

COM

varieties, depending upon climate, soil,
culture, and similar accidents ; so he con-
siders the diversities of the human race to
be merely varieties of the same species,
produced by natural causes.

Upon the whole, colour and figure
may be styled habits of the body. Like
other habits, they are created, not by
great and sudden impressions, but by
continual and almost imperceptible
touches. Of habits, both of mind and
body, nations are susceptible as well as
individuals. They are transmitted to the
offspring, and augmented by inheritance.
Long in growing to maturity, national
features, like national manners, become
fixed only after a succession of ages.
They become, however, fixed at last ; and
if we can ascertain any effect produced
by a given state of weather or of climate,
it requires only repetition, during a suffi-
cient length of time, to augment and im-
press it with a permanent character. The
sanguine countenance will, for this rea-
son, be perpetual in the highest latitudes
of the temperate zone; and we shall for
ever find the swarthy, the olive, the taw-
ny, and the black, as we descend to the
south.

COMPOSER, in music, a practical mu-
sical author; so called, in contradistinc-
tion to one who merely speculates in
acoustics, and writes on the laws of har-
mony and melody, but does not concern
himself with their practical application in
composition.

COMPOSITE numbers, are such as can
be measured exactly by a number exceed-
ing unity : as 6 by 2 or 3, or 10 by 5, &c.
so that 4 is the lowest composite num-
ber. Composite numbers, between them-
selves, are those which have some com-
mon measure besides unity ; as 12 and 15,
as being both measured by 3.

COMPOSITE order, in architecture, the
richest of the five orders, being a combi-
nation of the Ionic capital, with the bell
and foliage of the Corinthian. Its cornice
has simple modillions or dentils. See
ARCHITECTURE.

COMPOSITION of ideas, an act of the
mind, whereby it unites several simple
ideas into one concepiion, or complex
idea.

COMPOSITION, in music, the art of dis-
posing musical sounds into airs, songs,
&c. either in one or more parts, to be
sung by a voice, or played on instru-
ments.

COMPOSITION, in oratory, the co-
herence and order of the parts of a dis-
course.

To composition belong both the artful
joining of the words, whereof the stile
is formed, and whereby it is rendered
soft and smooth, gentle and flowing, full
and sonorous, or the contrary; and the
order, which requires things first in na-
ture and dignity to be put before those of
inferior consideration.

COMPOSITION, in painting, consists of
two parts, invention and disposition ; the
first whereof is the choice of the objects
which are to enter into the composition
of the subject the painter intends to ex-
ecute, and is either simply historical or
allegorical. The other very much con-
tributes to the perfection and value of a
piece of painting.

COMPOSITION, in commerce, a contract be-
tweenan insolvent debtor and hiscreditors,
whereby the latter accept of a part of the
debt in compensation for the whole, and
give a general acquittance according-

ty-

COMPOSITION, in printing, commonly

termed composing, the arranging of se-
veral types or letters in the composing-
stick, in order to form a line ; and of se-
veral lines ranged in order in the galley,
to make a page ; and of several pages to
make a form,

COMPOSITION of motion, is an assemblage
of several directions of motion, resulting
from several powers acting in different,
though not opposite directions. See
MECHANICS.

COMPOSITION of proportion, is the com-
paring the sum of the antecedent and
consequent with the consequent, in two
equal ratios ; as, suppose, 4 : 8 : : 3 : 6,
they say, by composition of proportion
12 : 8 :: 9 : 6.

COMPOST, in husbandry and garden-
ing, several sorts of soils or earthy mat-
ter mixed together, in order to make a
manure for assisting the natural earth in
the work of vegetation, by way of
amendment or improvement.

COMPOUND/owe?-,in botany, a flow-
er formed of the union of several fructifi-
cations, or lesser flowers, « ithin a com-
mon calyx ; each lesser flower being fur-
nished with five stamina, distinct at bot-
tom, but united by the anthers into a
cylinder, through which passes a style
considerably longer than the stamina, and
crowned by a stigma or summit, with
two divisions that are rolled backwards-.
These are the essential characters of a
compound flower. Compound flowers,
which make up four classes in Tourne-
fort's system, are all reduced to the class
Syngenesia, which see. See BOTANY.

COxM

COM

COMPOUND interest. See INTE-
REST.

COMPOUND motion, that affected by the
concurring action of several different
powers. Thus, if one power act in the
direction of, and with a force pi'oportion-
al to the end of a parallelogram, and ano-
ther act in the direction of, and with a
force proportional to its side, the com-
pound motion will be in the direction of,
and proportional to, the diagonal of the
said parallelogram.

COMPOUND numbers, those which may
be divided by some other number besides
unity, without leaving any remainder:
such are, 18, 20, &c. the first being mea-
sured by the numbers 2, 6, or 9 : and the
second by the numbers 2, 4, 5, 10.

COMPRESS, in surgery, a bolster of
soft linen cloth, folded in several doubles,
frequently applied to cover a plaster, in
order not only to preserve the part from
the external air, but also the better to
retain the dressing. See SURGERY.

COMPRESSION, the act of pressing
or squeezing some matter, so as to set
its parts nearer to each other, and make
it possess less space.

Water was, during a very long period,
considered as a fluid perfectly unelastic :
that is, unyielding, or incompressible ;
and this opinion was corroborated by an
experiment of the Academy del Cimento
in Italy. About a century and a half ago,
the members of that academy endeavour-
ed to ascertain whether water was capa-
ble of being compressed in any degree.
For this purpose they filled a hollow
metallic sphere witk that fluid, and stop-
ped the aperture very accurately. This
ball then was pressed in a proper ma-
chine, but no contraction could be ob-
served ; nor, indeed, was the apparatus
capable of manifesting small degrees of
compression. Hence they concluded that
water was not capable of compression.
This opinion prevailed until the year
1761, when the ingenious Mr. Canton
discovered the compressibility of water,
and of other liquids, which he immedi-
ately made known to the Royal Society.
He took a glass tube, having a ball at
one end, filled the ball and part of the
tube with water, which he had deprived
of air as much as it was in his power ;
then placed the glass thus filled under
the receiver of an air-pump; and on ex-
hausting the receiver, which removed
the pressure of the atmosphere from
over the water and the glass vessel
which contained it, in consequenee of
which the water rose a little way into

the tube, viz. expanded itself. He then
placed the apparatus under the receiver
of a condensing engine, and on forcing
the air into it, which increased the pres-
sure upon the water, a diminution of bulk
evidently took place; the water descend-
ing a little way within the tube. "In
this manner," Mr. Canton says, " I have
found by repeated trials, when the heat
of the air has been about 50°, and the
mercury at a mean height in the barome-
ter, that the water will expand and rise
in the tube by removing the weight of
the atmosphere, one part in 21740, and
will be as much compressed under the
weight of an additional atmosphere.
Therefore the compression of water by
twice the weight of the atmosphere is
one part in 10870." " Water has the re-
markable property of being more com-
pressible in winter than in summer,
which is contrary to what I have observ-
ed both in spirits of wine and oil of
olives." By the same means, and in the
same circumstances, Mr. Canton ascer-
tained the property of being compressed
in some other fluids, and the results are
as in the following table :

Millionth part.
Compression of spirit of wine - 66

oil of olives - - - 48

. - - - - rain water - ... 46

- - - - - sea water 40

mercury 3

COMPTONIA, in botany, so called in
honour of Henry Compton, Lord Bishop
of London, a genus of the Monoecia Tri-
andria class and order. Essential cha-
racter : male ament. calyx two-leaved;
corolla none ; anthers two-parted. Fe-
male ament. calyx six-leaved ; corolla
none ; styles two : nut. ovate. There is
but one species, viz. C. asplenifolia, fern-
leaved Comptonia, a native of North
America. It is an astringent, and is in
considerable estimation as a remedy for
fluxes. It is brought to the Philadelphia
market abundantly for this purpose.

COMPUTATION of a planet's motion.
See PLANET.

COMPUTATION, in law, is used in re-
spect of the true account or construction
of time, so understood as that neither par-
ty to an agreement, &c. may do wrong
to the other; and that the determination
of time be not left at large, or taken
otherwise than according to the judg-
ment and intention of law.

If a lease is ingrossed, bearing date Ja-
nuary 1, 1808, to have and to hold for

CON

cox

tbreeyears from henceforth, and the lease
is not executed till the second of January ;
in this case the words from henceforth
shall be accounted from the delivery of
the deed, and not by any computation
from the date. And "if the lease be de-
livered at four o'clock in the afternoon on
the said second day, it shall end the first
day of January, in the third year ; the law,
in such computations, rejecting all frac-
tions or divisions of the day.

CONCAVE, an appellation used in
speaking of the inner surface of hol-
low bodies, but more especially of sphe-
rical ones.

CONCAVE glasses, such as are ground
hollow, and are usually of a spherical fi-
gure, though they may be of any other, as
parabolical, &c. All objects seen through
concave glasses appear erect and dimin-
ished.

CONCENTRATION, in chemistrv, the
act of increasing the strength of fluids,
which are rendered stronger by abstract-
ing a portion of the mere menstruum.
This is generally effected by evaporation,
where the menstruum is driven off at a
lower heat than is required to drive off
the substance with which it is united.
Thus, dilute sulphuric acid may be con-
sidered as a mixture of the real acid with
water ; and by applying a certain heat
the water may be evaporized, leaving the
acid behind in a state of concentration.
AVhen concentrated as much as possible,
its specific gravity is about twice as great
as that of water ; but it can rarely be ob-
tained denser than 1.85. When concen-
trated to 2.000 it contains a considerable
portion of water, as has been proved by
combining it with barytes or potash, in
which case water remains behind, and
does not enter into the combination.
Again, vinegar consists of an acid and wa-
ter, and brandy of alcohol and water ; and
in proportion as the acid and alcohol are
freed from the water, they are said to be
more or less concentrated. This may be
performed, (1.) either by simple distilla-
tion, in which case the acid or spirit comes
over first, leaving the water behind ; or,
(2,) by exposing the vinegar or brandy to
severe frost, when the water will be fro-
zen, and the acid or alcohol will be found
in a state of concentration in the middle
of the ice ; the greater the cold the high-
er the state of concentration. M. Lowitz
has found that the acid, however concen-
trated, congeals at 22°. Sulphuric acid,
on the other hand, exposed to a much less
severe cold, crystallizes, and to effect this

it must not be greatly concentrated,
(3.) Another mode of concentrating the a-
cetic acid is by distilling acetate of copper
reduced to a powder in a retort. At first
there comes over a liquid nearly colour-
less, and almost insipid, and afterwards
a highly concentrated acid, tinged with
green ; but being distilled a second time
in a moderate heat, it is colourless, trans-
parent, exceedingly pungent, and con-
centrated. (4.) The most perfect method
of obtaining this acid in a concentrated
state was discovered by Mr. Lowitz, of
Petersburg!!. It is thus : distil a mixture
of three parts of acetate of potash, and
four parts of sulphuric acid, till the ace-
tic acid has come over into the receiver.
To separate it from the sulphuric acid,
with which it is slightly contaminated, it
must be distilled over a portion of ace-
tate of barytes.

CONCENTRIC, in mathematics, some-
thing that has the same common centre
with another : it stands in opposition to
eccentric. Concentric is chiefly used in
speaking of round bodies and figures, or
circular and elliptical ones, ,Scc. but may
be likewise used for polygons, drawn pa-
rallel to each other upon the same centre.
The method of Nonius, for graduating
instruments, consists in describing with
the same quadrant 45 concentric arches,
dividing the outermost into 90 equal
parts, the next into 89, &c.

CONCEPTION, in logic, is the simple
apprehension or perception which we
have of any thing, without proceeding
to affirm or .deny any thing about it.
There are rules by which we may guide
and regulate our conceptions of things,
which is the main business in logic :
for most of our errors in judgment, and
the weakness, fallacy, and mistakes of
our argumentation, proceed from the
darkness, confusion, defect, or some other
irregularity, in our conceptions. The
rules are these : 1. To conceive of things
clearly and distinctly in their own na-
tures. 2. Completely in all their parts.
3. Comprehensively in all their proper-
ties and relations. * 4. Extensively in all
their kinds. 5. Orderly, or in a proper
method.

CONCESSION, in rhetoric, a figure
whereby something is freely allowed that
yet might bear dispute, to obtain some-
thing1 that one would have granted to
him, and which he thinks cannot fairly
be denied, as in the following conces-
sion of Dido, in Virgil :

CON

" The nuptials he disclaims, 1 urge no

more ;
Let him pursue the promised Latian

shore.

A short delay is all I ask him now ;
A pause from grief, an interval from

woe."

CONCHIUM, in botany, a genus of
the Tetrandria Monogynia clasg and or-
der. Calyx none ; petals four, support-
ing the stamina ; stigma turbinate, mu-
cronate ; capsule one celled, two-seeded ;
seeds winged.

CONCINNOUS, in music, a term ge-
nerally confined to performance in con-
cert. It applies to that nice discriminat-
ing execution, in which the band not on-
ly gives with mechanical exactness every
passage of the composition, but enters
into the design or sentiment of the com-
poser, and, preserving a perfect concord
and unison of effect, moves as if one soul
inspired the whole orchestra.

CONCHOID, in geometry, the name
of a curve, given it by its inventor, Ni-
comedes, and is thus generated.

Draw the right line QQ (see Plate III.
Miscel. fig. 14.) and AC perpendicular to
it in the point E ; and from the point C

draw many right lines CM, cutting the
right line QQ in Q ; and make QM=QN,
AE=EF, viz. equal to an invariable line :
then the curve, wherein are the points
M, is called- the first conchoid ; and the
other wherein are the points N, the se-
cond ; the right line QQ being the direc-
trix, and the point C the pole : and from
hence it will be very easy to make an in-
strument to describe the conchoid.

The line QQ is an asymptote to both
the curves, which have points of contra-
ry flection. See ASYMPTOTE. If QM=
AE=a, EC=6, MR=EP=x, ER=
PM=# .• then will a- 6* — 2 a1 b x-\-a- x*
=6* x* —2 b a?3+a*-Hff* y>, and express
the nature of the second conchoid ; and
a:*-f 2 b xl+y> ^»-f 61 a-i=ai b>+2 & b x
-f-a1 x-, the nature of the first; and so
both these curves are of the same kind.

This curve was used by Archimedes
and other ancients in the construction of
solid problems ; and Sir Isaac Newton
says, that he himself prefers it before
other curves, or even the conic sections,
in the construction of cubic and biqua-
dratic equations, on account of its sim-
plicity and easy description, shewing
therein the manner of their construction
by help of it.

END OF VOL. HI.

IV.

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Pfate 11.

YC 43727

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

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Full text of "American edition of the British encyclopedia, or Dictionary of arts and sciences : comprising an accurate and popular view of the present improved state of human knowledge"

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